RECLAIMING-THE 
ARID*  WEST 

GE  ORGE  •  WHAHJON  -JAA\ES 


I,    > 


BANCROFT    LIBRARY 


RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 


BOOKS    BY 

GEORGE  WHARTON  JAMES 

ARIZONA,  THE  WONDERLAND 

CALIFORNIA,  ROMANTIC  AND  BEAUTI- 
FUL 

THE    WONDERS    OF    THE    COLORADO 
DESERT 

IN  AND  AROUND  THE  GRAND  CANYON 
THROUGH  RAMONA'S  COUNTRY 
THE  LAKE  OF  THE  SKY,  LAKE  TAHOE 
OUR  AMERICAN  WONDERLANDS 

IN  AND  OUT  OF  THE  OLD  MISSIONS  OF 

CALIFORNIA 

INDIAN  BLANKETS  AND  THEIR  MAKERS 
INDIAN  BASKETRY 

HOUSE     BLESSING     CEREMONY     AND 
GUEST  BOOK 

THE  INDIANS'  SECRETS  OF  HEALTH 
HEROES  OF  CALIFORNIA 

THE  INDIANS  OF  THE  PAINTED  DESERT 
REGION 

ETC.,  ETC. 


JOHN    WESLEY    POWELL 


RECLAIMING 
THE  ARID  WEST 

The  Story  of  the  United 
States  Reclamation  Service 


BY 

GEORGE  WHARTON  JAMES 


WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW  YORK 

DODD,  MEAD  AND  COMPANY 
1917 


~-     * 


COPYRIGHT,  1917 
Bv  EDITH  E.  FARNSWORTH 


Bancroft  Library 


TO 

JOHN  WESLEY  POWELL 
The  Father  of  the  U.  8.  Reclamation  Service, 

Who  planned  the  campaign,  trained  the  first  officers, 
and  put  confidence  into  the  hearts  of  the  first  army  of 
Workers  in  the  field  of  Irrigation 

TO 

FRANCIS  G.  NEWLANDS 
The  Constructive  Statesman, 

Whose  clear-acting  legal  mind,  smoothed  the  legisla- 
tive path  and  made  possible  congressional  action  upon 
this  difficult  subject 

TO 

CHAELES  D.  WALCOTT 
The  Enthusiastic  Organizer, 

Who  gave  up  a  loved  profession  that  he  might  devote 
his  genius  to  the  organization  of  the  Reclamation  Serv- 
ice 

TO 

FREDERICK  H.  NEWELL 
The  Scientific  Leader, 

Who,  as  tireless  engineer  and  administrator  did  much 
to  draw  together  the  earlier  workers  of  the  Reclamation 
Service 

TO 

WILLIAM  E.  SMYTHE 

The  Eloquent  and  Convincing  Orator, 
Who  by  pen  and  voice  sought  the  education  of  the  people 

TO 

GEORGE  H.  MAXWELL 
The  Energetic  and  Tireless  Advocate, 

Who   interested  capital   and   brains   in  the  irrigation  of 
arid  lands 

TO 

ARTHUR  POWELL  DAVIS 
The  Practical  Engineer, 

Whose   ability  and   knowledge   have   ever   counseled  the 
project  engineers  in  their  problems 

TO 

FRANKLIN  K.  LANE 
The  Sympathetic  Secretary  of  the  Interior, 

Whose  breadth  of  mind  has  visioned  the  possibilities  of 
this  great  movement  of  triumphant  democracy  and  led 
him  to  enlarge  its  plans  until  now  the  arid  deserts  of  the 
western  United  States  are  being  made  to  blossom  as  the 
rose 

TO  THESE, 

AND  TO  ALL  THE  FAITHFUL  OFFICERS 

At  Home  and  In  the  Field,  who  have  carried  out  the 
great  plans  of  the  originator  of  the  Service  I  cordially 
dedicate  this  account  of 

THE  MOST  BENEFICENT  GOVERNMENTAL 
WORK  OF  ALL  HISTORY 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

INTRODUCTORY xi 

I    THE  FATHER  OF  THE  U.  S.  RECLAMATION  SERVICE 
AND  His  "BOYS" 1 

II  THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  RECLAMATION  ACT     ...  13 

III  IRRIGATED  LAND  FOR  THE  LANDLESS     ....  21 

IV  SOME  OF  THE  DIFFICULTIES 35 

V  AIDING  THE  SETTLERS 53 

VI  THE  SALT  RIVER  PROJECT,  ARIZONA     ....  65 

VII  THE  YUMA  PROJECT,  ARIZONA — CALIFORNIA  .     .  86 

VIII  THE  ORLAND  PROJECT,  CALIFORNIA     .     .     .     .103 

IX  THE  GRAND  VALLEY  PROJECT,  COLORADO  .     .     .  116 

X  THE  UNCOMPAHGRE  PROJECT,  COLORADO   .     .     .  125 

XI    THE  BOISE  PROJECT,  IDAHO 137 

XII    THE  MINIDOKA  PROJECT,  IDAHO 146 

XIII  JACKSON  LAKE  ENLARGEMENT  PROJECT,  IDAHO — 

WYOMING 158 

XIV  THE  HUNTLEY  PROJECT,  MONTANA 

XV    THE  MILK  RIVER  PROJECT,  MONTANA  ....  176 

XVI    THE  SUN  RIVER  PROJECT,  MONTANA  ....  188 

XVII    THE  LOWER  YELLOWSTONE  PROJECT,  MONTANA — 

NORTH  DAKOTA 195 

XVIII    THE   NORTH   PLATTE  PROJECT,   NEBRASKA— WY- 
OMING        201 

XIX    THE  TRUCKEE-CARSON  PROJECT,  NEVADA  .     .     .  217 
XX    THE  CARLSBAD  PROJECT,  NEW  MEXICO  ....  234 

XXI    THE  HONDU  PROJECT,  NEW  MEXICO    ....  242 

v 


VI 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXII  THE  Rio  GRANDE  PROJECT,  NEW  MEXICO— TEXAS  250 

XXIII  THE  WILLISTON  PROJECT,  NORTH  DAKOTA    .     .  263 

XXIV  THE  LAWTON  PROJECT,  OKLAHOMA      .     .     .     .271 
XXV    THE  UMATILLA  PROJECT,  OREGON 275 

XXVI    THE  KLAMATH  PROJECT,  OREGON — CALIFORNIA    .  289 

XXVII    THE  BELLE  FOURCHE  PROJECT,  SOUTH  DAKOTA    .  306 

XXVIII    THE  STRAWBERRY  VALLEY  PROJECT,  UTAH      .     .  319 

XXIX    THE  OKANOGAN  PROJECT,  WASHINGTON     .     .     .  326 

XXX    THE  YAKIMA  PROJECT,  WASHINGTON  .     .     .     .334 

XXXI    THE  SHOSHONE  PROJECT,  WYOMING    ....  351 

XXXII    INDIAN  PROJECTS 366 

THE  PIMA  PROJECT,  ARIZONA 367 

THE  BLACKFEET  PROJECT,  MONTANA     .     .     .  367 

THE  FLATHEAD  PROJECT,  MONTANA  ....  373 

THE  FORT  PECK  PROJECT,  MONTANA      .     .     .384 

XXXIII    A  VISION  OP  THE  FUTURE  .  387 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

John  Wesley  Powell Frontispiece 

FACING 
PAGE 

Roosevelt  Dam  and  North  Spillway.  Salt  River  Project, 
Arizona 68 

Orange  Grove  near  Camelback  Mountain.  Salt  River 
Project,  Arizona 76 

Cultivating  in  young  orchard  on  the  Grand  Mesa.     Grand 

Valley  Project,  Colorado .      .     76 

Laguna  Dam,  one  mile  long,  across  Colorado  River.    Yuma 

Project,  Arizona — California 94 

Diversion  Dam  and  Ditch.     Orland  Project,  California    .      .  110 

East  Park  Dam,  downstream  face — height  127  feet,  length 

of  crest  220  feet.     Orland  Project 110 

Roller    Crest    Diversion    Dam    and    Canals,    Grand    River. 

Grand  Valley  Project,  Colorado 118 

Irrigation  and  Farming  on  Bench  Land  near  Grand  Junction. 

Grand  Valley  Project,  Colorado 122 

Main  Canal,  Grand  River.    Grand  Valley  Project,  Colorado  122 

In  the  heart  of  Gunnison  Canyon,  near  the  Tunnel.     Uncom- 

pahgre  Project,  Colorado 130 

Arrowrock  Dam  and  Reservoir.    Boise  Project,  Idaho     .     .  142 

Spillway  of  the  Minidoka  Dam,  and  Lake  Walcott.  Elec- 
tric power-house  in  the  background.  Minidoka  Project, 
Idaho 148 

Interior  of  Minidoka  hydro-electric  power-house.  Mini- 
doka Project,  Idaho 154 

Electrically    heated    High     School    at    Rupert.    Minidoka 

Project,  Idaho 154 

Jackson  Lake  Reservoir  and  Teton  Mountains — Mt.  Moran 

in  center.     Minidoka  Project,  Idaho 160 

vii. 


viii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING 
PAQB 

Headgate,  showing  gate  stands,  Yellowstone  River.    Huntley 

Project,  Montana 166 

Direct  pumping  plant.    Huntley  Project,  Montana    .     .     .  166 

Fort  Belknap  Dam,  looking  upstream.    Milk  River  Valley, 
Montana 180 

Site  of  Diversion  Dam,  Sun  River  Canyon,  August,  1907. 
Sun   River  Project 190 

Simm's  Creek  Pressure  Pipe,  Fort  Shaw  Unit.     Sun  River 
Project,  Montana 192 

Method  of  reinforcement  of  Simm's  Creek  Pipe.     Sun  River 
Project,  Montana 192 

Head  works  Main  Canal.    Lower  Yellowstone  Project,  Mon- 
tana—North Dakota 198 

Whalen  Diversion  Dam  and  Headworks.    North  Platte  Pro- 
ject, Nebraska — Wyoming 210 

Spring  Canyon  Flume.    North  Platte  Project,  Nebraska — 
Wyoming 210 

Diversion  Dam  on  Truckee  River,  Southern  Pacific  train  in 
background.     Truckee- Carson  Project,  Nevada    .     .     .  218 

Lahontan  Dam,  Spillways  and  Power-house,  Carson  River. 

Truckee-Carson  Project,  Nevada 224 

The  City  of  Fallen  on  what  was  once  the  Carson  Desert. 

Truckee-Carson  Project,  Nevada 228 

A  part  of  the  Nevada  Desert  before  Reclamation.    Truckee- 
Carson  Project,  Nevada 228 

Lake  McMillan  Storage  Reservoir.     Carlsbad  Project,  New 
Mexico 236 

Avalon  Dam  and  Spillway.     Carlsbad  Project,  New  Mexico  .  240 

Cement  lined  section  Main  Canal.     Carlsbad  Project,  New 
Mexico 240 

Hondo  Reservoir,  looking  north  from  Outlet  Tower.    Hondo 

Project,  New  Mexico 244 

Elephant  Butte  Dam.    Rio  Grande  Project,  New  Mexico — 
Texas  .  254 


ILLUSTRATIONS  ix 

FACING 
PAGB 

Country  home  in  the  Mesilla  Valley,  near  Las  Graces,  New 

Mexico.    Rio  Grande  Project,  New  Mexico — Texas     .  254 

La  Mesa  Schoolhouse.     Rio  Grande  Project,  New  Mexico — 

Texas 260 

Cutting  Alfalfa.    Rio  Grande  Project,  New  Mexico — Texas  260 

Pumping  barge  at  low  water  on  the  Missouri  River  at  Willis- 
ton.  Williston  Project,  North  Dakota 264 

Pumping  barge  at  high  water  with  single  lengths  of  discharge 
pipes  between  the  ball-joints  on  the  barge  and  bank  of 
the  Missouri  River.  Williston  Project,  North  Dakota  .  264 

U.  S.  Reclamation  Service  coal  mines  and  miners.     Williston 

Project,  North  Dakota 268 

Largest  drop  in  South  Canal.  Uncompahgre  Project,  Colo- 
rado   268 

Lake  Lawtonka.     Lawton  Project,  Oklahoma 272 

Three  Miles  Falls  Dam.     Umatilla  Project,  Oregon     ...   280 

Looking  up  Klamath  River,  Oregon,  east  of  Keno,  over  the 
Tule  and  swamp  lands,  1905.  Klamath  Project,  Oregon 
—California .292 

Intake  Gates  of  Main  Canal.    Klamath  Project,  Oregon — 

California 300 

Lost  River  Dam.    Klamath  Project,  Oregon — California     .  300 

Belle  Fourche  Diversion  Dam.     Belle  Fourche  Project,  South 

Dakota 308 

Placing    the    concrete    blocks    on    upstream    face    of    Belle 

Fourche  Dam.    Belle  Fourche  Project,  South  Dakota    .  314 

Spillway  at  head  of  Waste  Channel,  north  end  of  Belle 

Fourche  Dam.    Belle  Fourche  Project,  South  Dakota     .  314 

West  Portal  of  Strawberry  Tunnel,  nearly  four  miles  long. 

Strawberry  Valley  Project,  Utah 320 

Power-house  and  Wasteway  Chute.  Strawberry  Valley  Pro- 
ject, Utah 322 

Bridge  across  Wasteway  at  north  end  of  Strawberry  Dam. 

Strawberry  Valley  Project,  Utah 322 


x  ILLUSTEATIONS 

T  A  CINQ 
PAGB 

Peach  orchard  one  year  old  on  Maple  Bench.  Wasatch 
Mountains  in  background.  Strawberry  Valley  Project, 
Utah 324 

Conconully  Dam,  with  Spillway  and  Reservoir.     Okanogan 

Project,  Washington 328 

Vista  from  Round  Top  Hill  back  of  White  Ranch.  Okano- 
gan Project,  Washington 332 

Cold  Springs  Dam,  Reservoir,  and  Outlet  Tower.  Umatilla 

Project,  Oregon 332 

Lake  Keechelus  Reservoir  as  seen  from  the  Sunset  Highway. 

Yakima  Project,  Washington 336 

Diversion  Dam  in  Yakima  River,  Headgates  and  Gate  tender's 
house  on  the  Sunnyside  Canal.  Yakima  Project,  Wash- 
ington   342 

Main    Tieton    Canal,    Tieton    Canyon,    600    feet    above   the 

stream.     Yakima   Project,   Washington 342 

After  four  years  of  the  Reclamation  Service.  Yakima  Pro- 
ject, Washington 348 

Shoshone  Dam.     Shoshone  Project,  Wyoming 354 

Shoshone  Reservoir  at  Sunset,  from  1000  feet  west  of  Dam. 

Shoshone  Project,  Wyoming 360 

Two  Medicine  Canal  Headworks  and  River,  from  north  side 

of  Canal.     Blackfeet  Project,  Montana 370 

Flume  on  Fisher  Canal.    Blackfeet  Project,  Montana  .     .     .370 

Sunrise  on  Nine  Pipe  Reservoir.  Mission  Range  in  back- 
ground. Flathead  Project,  Montana 376 

Post  Creek  Headworks  and  Mission  Range.  Flathead  Pro- 
ject, Montana 380 

Desert  lands  before  Reclamation.  Yakima  Project,  Wash- 
ington   386 

Dam  on  Poplar  River.    Fort  Peck  Project,  Montana  .     .     .386 


INTKODUCTOBY 

These  words  are  penned  just  at  the  time  when 
the  citizens  of  the  United  States  are  arising  to  the 
stern  demands  of  war.  German  autocracy  is  seek- 
ing to  rule  Europe  and  then  the  world.  After  long 
and  patient  waiting,  submitting  to  many  and  alto- 
gether inexcusable  aggressions  and  injuries,  the 
United  States  has  joined  forces  with  those  who  have 
been  the  especial  objects  of  the  fierce  and  determined 
onslaughts  of  Germany.  For  the  American  spirit 
is  essentially  opposed  to  the  German  spirit.  We  are 
as  antagonistic  as  darkness  and  light.  If  darkness 
reigns  light  disappears.  If  light  conquers  darkness 
is  non-existent.  Autocracy — Germany — says  the 
few  shall  rule  the  many.  Kaisers,  princes,  rulers 
exist  by  the  grace  of  God.  Democracy — the  United 
States — affirms  that  power  inheres  only  in  citizen- 
ship, and  that  there  are  no  "  ruling  classes  "  author- 
ized by  Divine  Goodness.  There  should  be  no  rulers, 
claims  Democracy ;  only  those  who  act  as  representa- 
tives of  the  people's  will. 

Here,  then,  the  issue  is  clearly  defined.  It  is 
freely  conceded  that  the  United  States  has  not  always1 
lived  up  to  its  high  ideal  of  democracy,  but  not  even 
its  bitterest  foes  can  deny  that  it  has  been  working 
steadily  to  the  higher  planes  of  democratic  thought, 
life  and  purpose. 

It  is  to  record  the  most  triumphant  evidence  I  be- 
lieve the  United  States  has  yet  presented  of  this 

xi 


xii  INTBODUCTOKY 

onward  and  upward  march  that  these  pages  are  writ- 
ten. For  the  work  of  the  Eeclamation  Service  is 
founded  deep  in  democracy — the  needs  of  the  com- 
mon people,  and  in  the  intense  desire  of  thought- 
leaders,  who  loved  men  as  brothers,  to  give  the  low- 
liest, poorest,  and  humblest  the  opportunities,  at 
least,  to  reach  after  the  enjoyments  of  comfort,  pros- 
perity and  happy  living  for  themselves  and  their 
families. 

Irrigation  has  been  practised  for  countless  cen- 
turies. Within  the  boundaries  of  the  United  States 
scores  of  miles  of  prehistoric  irrigation  canals  have 
been  found,  and  Egypt,  Abyssinia,  China,  India  were 
all  practising  irrigation  when  the  writing  of  history 
began. 

Yet  never  before  in  the  history  of  the  world  have 
irrigation  works  of  gigantic  magnitude  been  under- 
taken purely  and  simply  for  the  benefit  and  profit 
of  the  people.  Nay,  more,  the  people  ultimately  are 
even  to  own  and  control  them,  as  they  own  and  con- 
trol their  wheelbarrows,  ploughs,  harrows,  and  auto- 
mobiles. It  is  in  this  regard, — the  pure  democrat- 
ization of  the  great  irrigation  systems — that  the 
methods  of  the  United  States  differ  from  those  of  all 
other  nations,  ancient  and  modern.  The  influence  of 
this  forward  step  few  realize,  even  of  those  who  are 
actually  engaged  in  its  triumphant  progress,  or  reap- 
ing the  benefits  of  its  beneficent  march.  History, 
however,  will  record  it  as  an  epoch- forming  event,  as 
important  to  the  true  development  of  mankind  as 
the  signing  of  Magna  Charta  was  important  to  the 
English  people,  or  the  signing  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  to  the  American  people.  It  takes 


INTEODUCTOEY  xiii 

democracy  beyond  the  "  talking  "  stage.  It  is  a 
demonstration.  The  people  are  ruling — them- 
selves; the  powers  of  government  are  being  con- 
trolled— by  themselves;  these  powers  are  being 
used  to  benefit  not  a  privileged,  aristocratic,  spe- 
cially-blessed and  endowed  class — but  the  whole  of 
the  people.  All  who  will  may  come  and  partake  of 
its  gifts,  and  millions  yet  unborn  are  to  see  the  light 
of  day  under  conditions  as  superior  to  those  under 
which  many  of  our  day  live  that — if  they  but  know 
— their  hearts  will  overflow  with  thankfulness  and 
gratitude  towards  those  whose  wisdom  planned  so 
helpfully  for  their  greater  enjoyment  of  life. 

The  gift  of  such  a  system  is  a  gift  not  simply  to 
the  United  States  but  to  the  whole  world  of  human- 
ity, and  that  world  owes  the  gift  to  John  Wesley 
Powell,  the  organizer  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey, 
the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  as  well  as  the  father  of  the 
Eeclamation  Service,  whose  achievements  this  book 
recounts.  In  another  chapter  I  speak  more  of  his 
work  in  this  regard. 

How  well  I  recall  the  thrills  that  went  over  me  as, 
with  glowing  enthusiasm,  this  far-visioned  lover  of 
his  race,  this  true  minister  of  the  gospel  of  better- 
living,  outlined  his  plans.  Few  men  knew  the  arid 
West  as  did  he.  He  had  travelled  over  its  barren 
and  almost  useless  acres,  miles,  leagues,  until  he 
knew  them  by  heart.  He  could  locate  them  in  Idaho, 
Montana,  Wyoming,  Oregon,  California,  Nevada, 
Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Texas,  and  all  the  other  west- 
ern states,  and  his  keen  eye,  too,  had  taken  in— 
roughly  speaking,  of  course, — the  irrigation  possi- 
bilities of  each  area.  Here,  on  this  river,  a  storage 


xiv  INTRODUCTORY 

dam  could  be  located,  yonder,  its  beneficent  stream 
turned  into  a  main  canal,  which  should  feed  a  thou- 
sand and  one  laterals,  and  thus  bring  life  to  the 
thirsty  land. 

He  visualized  before  me,  so  that  I  also  saw  them, 
these  dams  being  erected,  these  canals  excavated,  the 
head-gates  and  laterals  put  in,  the  settlers  flocking 
in,  the  eager  clearing  and  levelling  of  the  land,  the 
sowing  of  the  seed.  He  saw  and  made  me  see  the 
first  rude  homes  of  the  incomers  going  up,  he  heard 
the  joyous  laughter  of  the  children,  and  saw  the 
hopeful  steps  of  the  wives,  as  well  as  the  eager  move- 
ments of  the  men.  And  as  the  years  progressed  he 
clearly  pictured  the  deserts  gone,  the  waste  areas 
reclaimed,  the  first  primitive  homes  and  barns  dis- 
placed by  the  more  substantial  erections  of  pros- 
perous farmers,  the  roads  made  as  solid  as  those  of 
the  Romans,  linking  progressive  towns  one  with  an- 
other, where  railways  would  come  to  connect  with  the 
outside  world,  and  all  the  material  evidences  of  hap- 
piness and  joy  would  prevail.  He  saw  school- 
houses,  churches,  theatres,  banks,  stores,  and  civic 
structures  rise  in  these  towns,  heard  the  hum  of  ma- 
chinery in  factory  and  mill,  and  his  face  shone  with 
a  light  as  of  transfiguration,  when  all  these  pictures 
flooded  his  imagination. 

Was  it  not  a  great  result  to  labour  for,  to  plan  and 
work,  to  work  and  wait,  to  urge  and  urge  and  con- 
tinue urging,  for?  This  was  one  of  the  great  motives 
of  Major  Powell's  life.  He  was  essentially  a  demo- 
cratic leader,  nay,  more,  a  bishop,  a  shepherd,  a 
guide  to  the  great  flock  of  men,  women,  and  children, 
who  were  never  to  know  him  personally,  but  who 


INTEODUCTOEY  xv 

were  to  feel  through  not  only  their  own  lives, 
but  those  of  their  children,  for  countless  genera- 
tions yet  to  come,  the  all-urging  love  of  his  great 
heart. 

And  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree  he  imbued  every 
one  of  his  lieutenants  with  the  same  idea  of  all-help- 
ful brotherhood.  You  cannot  get  men  of  science  to 
talk  of  these  things ;  they  may  even  openly  and  out- 
wardly laugh,  or,  perchance,  scoff  at  them,  yet  those 
whose  eyes  penetrate  the  surface,  both  see  and  feel 
that  there  is  a  great  heart  of  pulsating  brotherhood 
under  the  cold  or  grim  exterior  of  these  men.  No 
missionary  has  ever  worked  with  more  devotion  to  a 
high  and  noble  cause  than  have  Walcott,  Newell, 
Davis,  King,  Bien,  Lippincott,  Hill,  Quinton,  Whis- 
tler, Kenny,  Savage,  Weymouth,  Paul,  McConnell, 
Baldwin,  Cone,  Ensign,  Cole,  Blanchard  and  a  score 
of  others  I  might  name,  for  the  promotion  of  the 
great  ends  of  the  Eeclamation  Service. 

As  Director  of  the  Geological  Survey  Major  Pow- 
ell was  able  to  devote  considerable  attention  and 
time,  both  personal  and  of  his  scientific  workers,  to 
the  gathering  of  data  to  be  used  in  the  educational 
and  legislative  campaign  he  had  already  determined 
to  wage.  Few  dreamed  of  the  purpose  of  what  he 
was  doing,  but  by  1887  he  had  so  educated  certain 
leaders  in  Congress  that  the  Senate  itself  appointed 
a  committee  to  make  a  tour  of  the  arid  regions  and 
study  their  conditions. 

Then  came  the  terrible  drought  of  1890  in  the  re- 
gion of  the  Great  Plains.  Gardens,  farms,  orchards 
withered  under  the  scorching  heats,  and  the  waters 
of  springs,  creeks,  and  even  rivers  seemed  to  have 


xvi  INTEODUCTOEY 

disappeared.  Thousands  were  ruined  and  despair 
ruled  in  many  hearts.  Yet  it  was  this  very  terrible 
misfortune  that  put  active  life  into  the  irrigation 
movement.  Farmers,  merchants,  newspaper  men 
began  to  think  of  the  subject,  even  though  they  had 
the  vaguest  ideas  in  regard  to  it.  One  of  them,  how- 
ever, William  E.  Smythe,  then  an  editorial  writer  on 
the  Omaha  Bee,  sent  out  by  his  chief  to  study  the 
drought-stricken  lands  of  Nebraska,  began  to  write 
on  the  subject.  Little  by  little  it  expanded,  un- 
folded, until  as  he  himself  states  it : 

Irrigation  seemed  the  biggest  thing  in  the  world.  It  was 
not  merely  a  matter  of  ditches  and  acres,  but  a  philosophy, 
a  religion,  and  a  program  of  practical  statesmanship  rolled 
into  one.  There  was  apparently  no  such  thing  as  ever  get- 
ting to  the  bottom  of  the  subject,  for  it  expanded  in  all 
directions  and  grew  in  importance  with  each  unfoldment. 

The  result  of  these  articles  was  the  holding  of  local 
conventions  in  Nebraska  upon  the  subject.  These, 
in  turn,  led  to  a  State  Convention,  which  was  held  in 
Lincoln,  where  Mr.  Smythe  was  made  chairman  of  a 
Committee  to  arrange  for  a  National  Irrigation  Con- 
gress. This  was  held  a  few  months  later  at  Salt 
Lake  City.  Thus  the  campaign  of  education  was 
fairly  launched.  For  immediately  Mr.  Smythe  re- 
signed his  berth  on  the  Bee,  launched  the  Irrigation 
Age  and  thus  became  the  open  and  avowed  apostle 
of  the  new  gospel  of  democracy. 

The  second  Congress  was  held  in  Los  Angeles, 
California,  in  1893,  and  how  well  I  remember  its  ses- 
sions. In  my  Heroes  of  California  I  have  told  one 
of  the  thrilling  incidents  that  occurred  there.  Year 
after  year  these  congresses  did  their  appointed 


INTEODUCTOEY  xvii 

work,  and  public  sentiment  was  more  and  more 
aroused.  Senator  Carey,  of  Wyoming,  succeeded  in 
getting  a  bill  passed  in  Congress,  granting  a  million 
acres  of  their  arid  lands  to  each  of  the  states,  pro- 
vided they  would  irrigate  them.  But  it  was  not  until 
1897  that  real  light  began  to  shine.  The  dawn  had 
come,  but  few  were  able  to  read  its  signs  aright  un- 
til Captain  Hiram  M.  Chittenden,  of  Yellowstone 
National  Park  fame,  published  his  report  on  Reser- 
voirs in  the  Arid  Region.  He  struck  the  key-note 
when  he  recommended  that  the  government  acquire 
full  title  and  jurisdiction  to  any  reservoir  site  which 
it  might  improve,  and  full  right  to  the  water  neces- 
sary to  fill  the  reservoir;  also  that  it  should  build, 
own,  and  operate  the  works,  holding  the  stored  wa- 
ters absolutely  free  for  public  use  under  local  regu- 
lations. 

This  report  called  forth  a  new  propaganda.  In 
the  words  of  Mr.  Smythe: 

What  was  needed  at  this  juncture  was  an  organized 
propaganda,  alive,  tireless,  sleepless.  The  Irrigation  Con- 
gress had  done  a  great  work  and  years  of  usefulness  were 
yet  reserved  to  it.  But  it  had  no  funds  or  paid  officers. 
It  met  but  once  a  year  at  widely  separated  points  and 
always  with  a  different  membership.  The  time  had  now 
come  when  the  cause  required  a  working  organism  quite  as 
effective  as  that  of  a  church,  a  political  party,  or  a  great 
business  enterprise. 

This  need  was  met  by  George  H.  Maxwell  and  his  Na- 
tional Irrigation  Association,  the  latter  formed  at  Wichita, 
Kansas,  in  1897,  at  the  close  of  a  meeting  of  the  Trans- 
Mississippi  Congress.  Mr.  Maxwell  was  an  energetic  young 
lawyer  of  California,  with  a  remarkable  talent  for  organi- 
zation and  a  gift  of  forceful  and  eloquent  speech.  He  was 
one  of  the  numerous  converts  of  the  Irrigation  Congress, 


xvm 


INTEODUCTORY 


which  he  joined  at  the  Phoenix  convention  in  the  previous 
year.  He  determined  to  abandon  his  law  practice  and  de- 
vote himself  exclusively  to  the  irrigation  propaganda  and 
the  solution  of  other  social  problems  which,  as  he  clearly 
foresaw,  must  go  hand-in-hand  with  the  great  scheme  of 
reclaiming  millions  of  acres  of  arid  lands.  The  National 
Irrigation  Association  was  not  to  supplant,  but  to 
strengthen  and  supplement,  the  pioneer  institution,  the 
National  Irrigation  Congress. 

Mr.  Maxwell  saw  that  nothing  could  be  done  without  a 
promotion  fund.  There  must  be  offices  in  leading  cities, 
periodicals  and  newspaper  bureaus,  and  constant  activity 
on  the  platform.  Who  should  finance  the  great  under- 
taking? Why  not  the  numerous  industrial  and  transpor- 
tation interests,  who  would  be  the  inevitable  beneficiaries 
of  new  agricultural  districts  throughout  the  Western  half 
of  the  continent  and  the  resulting  movement  of  people  and 
products?  Mr.  Maxwell  believed  that  if  the  managers  of 
these  enterprises  understood  their  true  interests,  they  would 
give  liberal  support  to  a  work  of  this  kind.  He  proceeded 
to  convince  them  of  the  fact,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  carry 
on  the  propaganda  with  a  vigour  and  success  unprecedented 
in  the  history  of  the  movement.  He  found  an  able  and  in- 
defatigable lieutenant  in  Mr.  C.  B.  Boothe,  a  prominent 
merchant  of  Los  Angeles,  California. 

The  Ninth  Irrigation  Congress,  assembled  at  Chi- 
cago, in  1900,  adopted  strong  resolutions  on  the  line 
of  Chittenden's  recommendations.  By  this  time  the 
propaganda  had  done  its  educational  work  so  suc- 
cessfully that  the  politicians  began  to  take  notice. 
All  three  of  the  great  parties  placed  planks  in  their 
platforms,  pledging  themselves  to  the  cause  of  gov- 
ernment irrigation.  This  brought  the  matter  fairly 
and  squarely  before  the  people.  In  one  of  the  later 
chapters  I  shall  recount  the  actual  history  of  the 
passing  of  the  Eeclamation  Act  in  Congress.  This 


INTEODUCTOEY  xix 

book  is  a  recital  of  the  work  done  in  accordance  with 
that  Act. 

In  its  preparation  I  have  received  aid  from  num- 
berless sources.  A  few  of  these  it  would  be  ungrate- 
ful of  me  not  to  recount  in  detail.  To  the  kind  cour- 
tesy and  encouragement  of  F.  H.  Newell,  the  first 
Chief  Engineer,  and  later,  Director  of  the  Eeclama- 
tion  Service,  and  long  its  animating  spirit,  for  many 
valuable  suggestions,  I  am  most  grateful.  And  in 
equal  measure,  and  with  the  same  unfailing  courtesy, 
kindness,  goodwill  and  ready  response,  have  I  re- 
ceived the  generous  aid  of  present  Director  A.  P.  Da- 
vis, and  the  Service's  Statistician,  C.  J.  Blanchard. 
Every  call  for  help,  for  a  fact,  a  figure,  a  suggestion 
as  to  photographs,  etc.,  brought  an  immediate  re- 
sponse, and  gave  one  to  feel  the  joy  of  the  cama- 
raderie of  the  leaders  of  this  great  army  of  peace. 
For  while  I  honour  and  revere  the  man  who  uses  his 
genius  to  prevent  the  enemies  of  his  country  from 
injuring  it,  and  who  places  his  life  in  jeopardy  to 
protect  the  lives  of  his  fellow-citizens  and  their  chil- 
dren, I  have  an  equally  deep  regard  for  the  man  who, 
without  any  of  the  glamour  of  war,  any  of  its  con- 
tagious mob-hurrahism,  works  faithfully,  conscien- 
tiously, untiringly  for  the  promotion  of  the  higher 
well-being  of  his  fellow-citizens.  "All  hail  to  the 
heroes  of  war,"  I  frankly  acclaim,  when  it  is  a  war 
of  protection,  of  democracy,  of  defence;  but  with 
equal  vigour  do  I  shout,  "All  hail  to  the  heroes  of 
peace." 

One  of  the  requirements  of  the  U.  S.  Eeclamation 
Service  of  all  of  its  project  engineers  is  a  full  history 
of  each  project,  from  its  early  inception,  kept  up 


xx  INTEODUCTOEY 

annually  as  the  work  progresses.  By  the  courtesy 
of  Mr.  A.  P.  Davis,  the  Director  and  Chief  Engineer, 
and  the  Project  Managers  and  Engineers,  I  have 
been  favoured  with  the  use  of  these  histories,  and  in 
every  case  have  availed  myself  of  their  contents. 

Practically  all  of  the  technical  information  both  as 
to  engineering  details,  water  flow,  soil  possibilities, 
etc.,  pertaining  to  the  projects  have  been  taken 
bodily  either  from  Director  Davis 's  interesting  vol- 
ume, a  purely  scientific  treatise  written  especially 
for  engineers,1 — and  these  Project  Histories.  As 
these  latter  are  departmental  documents  never  in- 
tended for  general  publication,  I  have  not  hesitated 
to  give  the  facts  required  in  the  engineer's  and  man- 
ager's own  words,  where  possible,  and  I  gladly  ac- 
knowledge this  fact. 

In  the  brief  fifteen  years  since  the  passage  of  the 
act  of  Congress,  scores  of  millions  of  dollars  have 
been  expended,  hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres  re- 
claimed from  the  desert,  millions  of  tons  of  fodder, 
grain,  fruits,  vegetables,  milk,  butter,  cheese,  and 
stock  produced,  hundreds  of  millions  of  chickens 
raised  and  eggs  secured,  hundreds,  nay  thousands,  of 
comfortable  homes  established,  and  scores  of  thou- 
sands of  men,  women  and  children  set  walking  in  the 
pathways  of  competency,  health,  education,  and 
happiness,  as  the  results  of  its  operations. 

These  great  ends  were  not  achieved  without  the 
exercise  of  marvellous  foresight,  great  generalship, 
scientific  knowledge,  practical  skill,  tremendous  en- 

i  Irrigation  Works  Constructed  "by  the  United  States  Government, 
by  Arthur  Powell  Davis,  Chief  Engineer,  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service. 
John  Wiley  &  Sons,  Inc.,  New  York,  1917. 


INTRODUCTORY  xxi 

ergy,  and  persistent  effort,  yet  it  has  all  been  done  by 
an  army  without  flaring  banners,  blaring  heralds,  the 
beating  of  drums,  the  clashing  of  cymbals,  or  the 
insistent  arousement  of  martial  music.  As  yet  the 
world  has  not  learned  to  honour  its  generals,  officers 
and  soldiers  in  the  armies  of  peace,  as  it  does  those 
of  the  well-advertised  armies  of  war.  Most  citizens 
see  nothing  thrilling  in  reports  on  watersheds,  reser- 
voir sites,  or  the  discussions  of  experts  as  to  types 
of  dams,  methods  of  construction,  relative  values  of 
materials,  and  the  worth  of  certain  cements. 

In  the  following  pages  I  have  sought  to  set  forth, 
in  simple  and  direct  phrase,  the  work  of  the  found- 
ers, organizers  and  present  workers  of  this  great 
Army  of  Peace — the  U.  S.  Reclamation  Service. 
There  are  today  thousands  of  families,  single  men, 
aye,  and  single  women,  in  cities,  east,  west,  north, 
and  south,  and  also  in  the  country  places,  who  long 
for  homes  of  their  own,  in  the  larger,  freer  West  of 
which  they  have  read  or  heard.  They  long  for  the 
out-of-door  life,  greater  freedom  for  their  children, 
larger  outlook,  greater  results  from  individual  en- 
deavour. While  the  Reclamation  Service  has  issued 
many  small  pamphlets  descriptive  of  the  different 
projects  which  it  has  brought  to  successful  opera- 
tion, and  others  in  the  processes  of  development, 
there  in  no  one  work  which  discusses  all  the  projects 
from  the  stand-point  of  the  layman  and  the  home- 
seeker.  This  is  what  I  have  sought  to  do. 

In  so  far  as  I  have  succeeded  I  am  glad,  and  if  the 
book  gives  help  to  those  seeking  information  and 
leads  them  to  go  out  into  the  large  and  free  spaces 


xxii 


INTEODUCTOEY 


of  the  once  arid  West,  I  shall  be  both  satisfied  and 
gratified. 


PASADENA,  CALIFORNIA,  JULY,  1917. 


RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 


RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 


CHAPTER  I 

THE   FATHER  OF   THE   TJ.    S.   RECLAMATION   SERVICE 
AND   HIS   "BOYS" 

In  Europe  today  great  armies,  led  by  skilful  gen- 
erals, are  fighting  a  war  of  devastation,  destruction, 
horror,  death  and  hell.  Men  are  being  elevated  to 
peerages,  dukedoms,  receiving  crosses  and  having 
all  kinds  of  honours  conferred  upon  them  because  of 
their  skill  in  destructive  acts  of  war.  The  human 
race  ever  has  been  hypnotized  into  hurrahing  over 
the  heroes  of  the  battle-field,  and  those  skilled  in  the 
arts,  crafts,  and  iniquities  that  feed  the  vulture. 
Personally  I  have  no  love  for  the  vulture 's  croak.  I 
enjoy  not  the  song  of  the  bullet,  whether  it  be  Brit- 
ish, German,  French  or  Russian;  nor  for  the  shriek 
of  shrapnel  and  the  roar  of  mortar.  I  see  none  of 
the  glory  of  proud-panoplied  war.  I  react  to  none 
of  its  enthusiasms.  To  me  a  war  of  aggression  is  a 
relic  of  barbarism,  damning  from  every  standpoint 
those  responsible  for  it  and  a  proof  that  they  have 
not  yet  progressed, — save  in  exterior  polish  and  ma- 
terial things, — beyond  the  cave-man  and  the  age  of 
the  stone-ax  and  club.  Hence  I  beat  no  drum  to  call 
attention  to  eloquent  praise  of  earth's  man-made 
hell.  I  sing  a  nobler  but,  possibly,  far  less  stirring 

and  popular  theme.    It  is  thrilling,  however. 

i 


2  EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

It  was  a  glorious  privilege  accorded  me,  twenty- 
five  or  more  years  ago,  of  association  with  Major 
John  Wesley  Powell,  when  he  was  planning  for  the 
salvation  of  the  arid  lands  of  the  American  West. 
Here  was  a  conquest  that  called  upon  a  man's  most 
exalted  imagination  and  taxed  his  noblest  endeavour. 
With  a  prophet's  superhuman  vision  and  a  patriot's 
true  devotion  to  the  highest  interests  of  his  fellow- 
citizens,  Major  Powell  bent  the  energies  of  his  scien- 
tific mind  to  the  organizing  of  this  great  warfare. 
As  early  as  1878  he  made  his  report  on  the  Lands 
of  the  Arid  Region.  No  one  can  read  this  today, 
nearly  forty  years  after  it  was  published,  without 
being  profoundly  impressed  by  the  far-seeing  wis- 
dom and  sagacity  of  its  author.  In  it  he  shows  two 
great  advantages  of  irrigation,  viz. :  1.  That  crops 
thus  cultivated  are  not  subject  to  the  vicissitudes 
of  rainfall,  and,  2.  The  water  for  irrigation  gener- 
ally comes  down  from  the  mountains  and  plateaus 
freighted  or  charged  with  fertilizing  materials 
gathered  from  the  decaying  vegetable  matter  and 
soil  of  the  higher  regions. 

But  he  also  saw  that  the  work  was  too  great  to  be 
accomplished  by  individual  enterprise.  He  grasped 
its  vastness  and  realized  that  only  under  govern- 
mental direction  and  by  its  expenditures  could  it  be 
accomplished.  He  explains  many  of  the  gigantic 
engineering  problems  involved  in  extensive  stor- 
age of  waters;  the  erection  of  stupendous  dams  ca- 
pable of  sustaining  the  never-ceasing  pressure  of 
such  large  volumes  of  water  as  would  be  needed  to 
make  irrigation  of  large  areas  constant.  For  he 
saw  that  only  when  the  water-supply  was  assured, 


THE  KECLAMATION  SERVICE  3 

by  vast  storage  reservoirs,  against  two  or  three  suc- 
cessive years  of  drought,  would  it  be  feasible  to  in- 
vite home-seekers  to  take  possession  of  the  arid 
lands  and  reclaim  them.  Ruin  and  disaster  would 
be  sure  to  follow  if  water  failed  for  but  one  year, 
and,  sometimes,  for  but  one  critical  month.  Hence 
plans  must  be  comprehensive  and  adequately  con- 
sidered and  all  the  problems  involved  thoroughly 
solved. 

The  conservation  of  all  water  supply  was  also 
duly  considered,  and  the  great  broad  plan,  after- 
wards so  successfully  inaugurated  under  President 
Roosevelt,  was  clearly  outlined.  Though  a  great 
friend  of  the  Indian  he  foresaw  that  the  necessary 
conservation  of  snow  and  rainfall  could  not  occur  if 
the  aboriginal  population  was  allowed  to  continue  to 
roam  freely  over  the  public  domain,  and  set  fire  to 
the  forest  for  the  purpose  of  driving  out  the  fur- 
bearing  game  and  thus  securing  their  pelts.  He 
predicted  the  need  of  timber  culture,  of  greater  pro- 
tection of  lumbered-over  areas,  of  reforestation. 

Then,  as  a  result  of  his  comprehensive  study  of 
the  conditions  existent  in  the  arid  lands,  he  outlined 
a  "Land  System,"  which,  however  much  modified  in 
actual  practice,  showed  a  statesman-like  grasp  of  the 
subject,  and,  to  my  mind,  the  most  purely  democratic 
and  for-the-common-good  system  up  to  that  time  de- 
vised in  the  known  history  of  the  world.  He  sought 
to  provide  against  monopolies  in  both  land  and  wa- 
ter, especially  the  latter,  and  insisted  that  the  User- 
Right  of  water  should  inhere  to  the  land  upon  which 
it  was  used.  He  deprecated  the  filing  upon  and  hold- 
ing of  large  water-rights  for  speculative  purposes, 


4  EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

and  showed  that  no  person  or  corporation  ought  to  be 
allowed  to  hold  water-rights  for  future  use  against 
the  actual  needs  of  actual  settlers  upon  the  lands. 
He  also  counselled  the  careful  and  thorough  classi- 
fication of  timber,  pasture,  arid,  and  mining  lands,  to 
prevent  fraudulent  acquisition  of  valuable  lands  un- 
der ignorant  officials  or  dishonest  claims,  and  mil- 
lions of  dollars  would  have  been  saved  to  the  later 
purchasers  of  land,  or  claimants  of  government 
lands,  had  his  safe  counsels  been  more  closely  fol- 
lowed. 

The  need  for  national  legislation  upon  this  great 
subject  was  early  apparent  throughout  the  West. 
Comparatively  few  people  in  the  East  were  able  to 
grasp  the  situation.  Conditions  there  were  so  en- 
tirely different.  There,  natural  rainfall  was  relied 
upon  for  the  natural  watering  of  all  crops.  Eain 
fell  in  abundance.  How  could  Easterners  compre- 
hend conditions  where  annual  rainfall  amounted  to 
little  more  than  they  were  familiar  with  in  a  month, 
or,  in  extreme  cases,  in  even  a  week?  As  soon  as 
men  began  to  possess  the  lands  of  the  arid  West  and 
sought  to  cultivate  them  the  scarcity  of  water  became 
an  irritating  problem.  Many  of  the  succeeding 
chapters  hint  at  the  distresses  experienced  during 
this  epoch.  But  Major  Powell,  unknown  to  the  suf- 
ferers, was  preparing  for  their  speedy  relief. 
Slowly,  but  surely,  he  was  carrying  on  his  campaign 
of  education.  United  States  senators  and  repre- 
sentatives, public  speakers,  writers  for  newspapers, 
magazines,  engineers,  chemists,  experts  on  under- 
ground water,  mountain  streams,  watersheds,  dams, 
and  reservoir  sites,  were  all  being  moulded  for  the 


THE  EECLAMATION  SERVICE  5 

accomplishment  of  this  work  in  a  manner  that  now 
reveals  his  organizing  genius.  Years  before  any 
one  else  realized  the  magnitude  of  the  task,  or  the 
tremendous  expenditures  it  entailed,  he  had  foreseen 
and  prepared  for  the  overcoming  of  the  difficulties, 
and  removing  of  obstacles.  With  consummate  gen- 
eralship he  trained  men,  with  whose  abilities  his  po- 
sition as  head  of  the  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
vey rendered  him  familiar,  so  that  they  were  duly 
prepared  for  the  position  of  Director,  Chief  Engi- 
neer, Project  Engineers,  etc.,  of  the  Eeclamation 
Service  when  it  was  duly  authorized  by  Act  of 
Congress.  He  enthused  men  of  eloquent  tongues 
so  that  they  gladly  went  forth  as  heralds  of  the 
dawn  of  the  new  day  of  irrigation,  of  reclamation 
of  arid  lands.  He  claimed  the  serious  attention 
of  governors  of  states,  of  the  financial  heads  of 
the  nation  and  of  the  respective  states.  He  flung 
forth  in  clarion  tones  the  new  watchword,  "  Water 
the  arid  lands  and  give  them  to  the  people." 
He  bade  hope  spring  up  afresh  in  the  hearts  of 
thousands  who  for  years  had  been  "bound  to  the 
wheel  of  labour"  in  crowded  and  unhealthy 
cities. 

Opposition  sprang  up  from  a  variety  of  sources, 
some  honest,  many  selfish,  all  tenacious,  pugnacious 
and  pertinacious.  United  in  the  one  purpose  of 
changing  or  defeating  his  plans,  Major  Powell's  op- 
ponents sought  to  discredit  his  leadership,  destroy 
confidence  in  his  integrity,  and  defeat  his  long-ma- 
tured plans.  Openly  and  secretly,  by  definite  bribe 
and  subtle  allurement  they  sought  to  divert  him  from 
his  unselfish,  noble,  and  patriotic  purpose.  Un- 


6  EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

flinching,  daring,  honest  to  the  core,  open  as  the  sun- 
swept  deserts  he  faced  his  foes  and  critics,  won  or 
silenced  them,  defied  or  over-awed  them,  and  yet, 
at  the  same  time,  guided  and  directed  the  large  army 
Congress  practically  had  placed  under  his  control. 
Grant,  in  the  height  of  his  career,  never  was  a  more 
noble  and  inspiring  personage,  a  fitter  subject  for  the 
rhetorician's  pen  or  the  orator's  eloquence,  than  was 
this  great  general  of  peace,  fighting  for  the  happy 
future  of  thousands  of  American  citizens,  and  reso- 
lutely following  the  campaign  marked  out  years 
before. 

In  due  time  the  responsibility  of  generalship  was 
placed  in  the  hands  of  those  who  were  once  his 
"boys,"  the  lieutenants  he  personally  had  trained 
to  carry  on  his  work  so  nobly  and  gloriously  begun. 
Before  his  summons  came  from  the  Divine  Euler  to 
"come  up  higher,"  he  had  lived  long  enough  to  see 
the  beginning  of  the  consummation  of  his  high  hopes, 
to  feel  the  joyous,  thankful  throb  of  many  hearts 
that  responded  to  them,  and  to  see  the  comfortable 
homes  of  happy  and  contented  people  spring  up 
where  before  had  reigned  the  cactus,  the  rattlesnake, 
and  wild  desolation. 

Of  course  mistakes  were  made,  many  and  various. 
Wherein  has  any  great  work  been  accomplished  with- 
out mistakes  ?  Here,  however,  a  new  departure  was 
being  taken.  A  work  on  a  larger  scale  than  the 
United  States  had  yet  attempted  was  to  be  begun. 
There  was  scarcely  an  engineer  in  the  land  whose 
experience  was  to  be  compared  with  the  features 
which  now  loomed  up  largely  in  the  horizon.  Pri- 
vate and  corporate — even  state — capital  had 


THE  EECLAMATION  SERVICE  7 

shrunk  back  appalled  at  the  gigantic  tasks  that  the 
Reclamation  Service  was  now  about  to  attempt. 

There  were  a  few  leaders,  who  were  so  far  compe- 
tent, but  every  man  had  to  be  tested,  proved,  anal- 
lysed,  in  the  searching  light  of  his  own  endeavours, 
grappling  with  gigantic  problems  that  had  never 
been  solved  elsewhere,  feeling  his  way;  experiment- 
ing if  you  will — the  only  thing  possible,  unless  each 
engineer  on  his  own  problems  had  been  given  super- 
human perspicacity,  intuition  and  foresight. 

What  man  of  brains  is  there  who  would  expect, 
under  such  circumstances,  anything  less  than  that 
errors  would  be  made,  false  steps  taken,  wrong  con- 
clusions arrived  at? 

It  was  in  the  nature  of  things,  that,  no  matter  how 
high  the  motives  and  aims  of  the  earlier  promoters  of 
this  work,  they  should  have  failed  to  grasp  all  the 
problems  that  confronted  them.  The  very  exuber- 
ance of  their  high  hopes  led  them  to  see  over — 
"overlook" — some  of  the  difficulties  that  were 
sure  to  arise,  as  well  as  the  slothfulness,  sordidness, 
meanness,  laziness,  of  some  who  would  want  to  take 
advantage  of  the  great  possibilities  the  Government 
offered. 

But  in  the  light  of  the  great  achievements  of  the 
Service  the  mistakes  are  insignificant  and  unimport- 
ant, and  none  but  a  small-minded  carper  and  cavil- 
ler would  refer  to  them  in  any  other  spirit. 

What  should  be  recalled  is  the  work  accomplished, 
while  fights  were  going  on  in  the  halls  of  legislation 
to  defeat  the  purely  democratic  character  of  the 
work  as  outlined.  Exploiters,  who  sought  their  own 
selfish  ends,  endeavoured  to  control  legislation,  so 


8  EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

that  the  national  government  would  be  induced  to 
expend  its  money  on  the  gigantic  engineering  fea- 
tures of  vast  irrigation  systems,  andxthen  allow  the 
watered  lands  to  be  controlled  by  the  states  in  which 
they  were  located.  Graft  and  corruption  spread 
their  hideous  heads  on  every  hand,  and  bribes  were 
offered  and  alas !  sometimes  taken,  though  the  band 
of  federal  leaders  stood  firm  for  the  principles  they 
had  enunciated. 

And  so  the  work  progressed,  and  great  structures 
began  to  rise  throughout  the  West,  though  in  such 
remote  and  inaccessible  locations  that  the  ordinary 
citizen  knew  nothing  of  them.  When  ultimately  he 
was  aroused  sufficiently  to  visit  them  he  exclaimed 
in  astonishment  at  what  had  been  achieved. 

How  little  the  outside  public  dreams  of  the  precau- 
tions taken  by  the  engineers  to  see  that  all  the  great 
features  of  these  gigantic  structures  were  proof 
against  any  contingencies  that  might  arise.  Days, 
weeks,  months,  even  years  of  careful  and  thorough 
observations,  afterwards  judicially  analysed  and  col- 
lated ;  conferences,  discussions,  investigations  on  the 
ground  by  chief  engineers,  consulting  engineers, 
project  engineers,  assistants,  and  local  men  who 
might  be  supposed  to  know  of  peculiar  or  occasional 
conditions  not  generally  understood;  watching  the 
progress  step  after  step,  checking  up,  testing,  gaug- 
ing where  possible — the  anxious  care,  the  devotion 
accorded  to  every  department  of  this  work,  few 
know  or  realize. 

Struggling  with  the  torrential  flood- waters  of  the 
California  and  Arizona  streams,  where  river-banks 
wash  away  in  a  single  night ;  listening  to  the  pound- 


THE  EECLAMATION  SERVICE  9 

ing  and  grinding,  smashing  and  crashing  of  ice  piling 
up  in  streams,  and  waiting  breathlessly  for  the 
breaking  of  the  jam  and  watching  the  fierce  waters 
hurling  the  stupendous  masses  of  ice  with  terrific 
velocity  upon  the  dams  in  the  frozen  streams  of  Mon- 
tana and  Idaho ;  battling  with  millions  of  gallons  of 
inpouring  water;  puzzling  over  chemical  problems 
such  as  the  eating  away  of  solid  concrete  by  elements 
in  the  water  which  were  not  understood;  seeing  a 
whole  community  waiting  for  water  when  it  was  most 
needed,  because  improperly  constructed  private  ca- 
nals broke  and  filled  up  the  government's  canals  with 
silt  and  debris,  or  washed  them  away,  so  that  water 
could  not  be  delivered ;  watching  the  flow  of  a  great 
stream  sink  away  in  a  reservoir  which  had  been 
created  at  great  cost,  as  at  Hondo ;  these  and  a  thou- 
sand and  one  disheartening  experiences  had  to  be 
met  and  overcome. 

I  do  not  write  of  what  I  imagine ;  I  tell  that  which 
I  know,  for  I  have  been  present  at  these  discussions ; 
I  have  heard  the  frank  criticisms,  the  open  objec- 
tions, the  fearless  questionings.  One  aim,  and  one 
only,  seemed  to  animate  every  man  in  the  work,  and 
that  was  to  give  the  best  service  that  was  possible  to 
him.  Success  in  the  highest,  fullest,  broadest  sense, 
was  the  only  goal  worth  striving  for,  and  to  gain  this, 
every  ounce  of  a  man's  physical  strength,  every  re- 
action of  his  mental  power,  every  truest  faculty  of 
his  soul,  must  be  alert,  intent,  devoted  to  his  task. 

Another  important  feature  should  be  named  here. 
Not  only  were  precautions  taken  against  accidents 
to  the  engineering  features,  the  dams,  reservoirs, 
head-gates,  canals,  and  general  distribution  system 


10         EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

of  the  water,  but,  during  the  progress  of  the  work 
of  construction  far  greater  care  was  exercised  to 
make  everything  healthful  and  sanitary  for  the  work- 
men employed  and  also  for  the  future. 

Imagine  the  sites  of  these  great  works,  during  the 
construction  periods,  practically  all  of  them  far  away 
from  towns  or  lesser  settlements.  Each  one  was 
the  sudden  dumping-ground  of  a  small  army,  from 
directing  engineers  to  rudest  labourers.  Their  food, 
water,  sleeping  accommodations,  and  every  day 
needs,  such  as  bathing,  laundry,  hospital,  club-house, 
general  recreations,  etc.,  had  to  be  provided  for, 
The  following  extract  from  a  report  of  one  of  the 
engineers  is  typical  of  what  was  done  everywhere : 

At  once,  the  problem  of  sanitary  protection  became  of 
vital  importance.  It  was  comparatively  simple  to  care  for 
the  main  camp,  which  was  under  the  absolute  control  of 
the  Reclamation  Service,  but  when  little  settlements  began 
to  spring  up  here  and  there,  as  more  and  more  of  the  men 
brought  their  families  to  the  job,  the  problem  became  more 
complex.  Fortunately,  public  sentiment  was  all  in  favour 
of  enforcing  the  necessary  regulations.  These  covered  the 
location,  proper  construction  and  disinfection  of  toilets,  dis- 
posal of  garbage,  protection  of  water-supply  and  the  fight- 
ing of  flies.  The  camp  physician  was  given  the  duties  of 
chief  sanitary  officer,  and  under  his  direction  the  camp 
foreman  and  his  crew  of  janitors  and  camp  men  looked 
after  the  main  camp.  To  aid  in  the  proper  enforcement 
of  the  necessary  regulations  outside  of  the  main  camp,  it 
was  arranged  to  look  after  the  necessary  work  like  disin- 
fection, garbage  collection,  the  furnishing  of  garbage-cans, 
fly-traps,  etc.,  at  a  certain  fixed  charge  for  the  service  per- 
formed, and  nearly  all  of  the  persons  living  outside  of  the 
main  camp  were  glad  to  take  advantage  of  this  arrange- 
ment. 

All  applicants  for  employment  were  given  a  brief  physi- 


THE  RECLAMATION  SERVICE          11 

cal  examination  by  the  resident  physician,  which  was  made 
more  thorough  if  deemed  advisable.  In  this  way  the  unfit 
or  undesirable  were  eliminated.  Vaccination  for  smallpox 
or  anti-typhoid  inoculation  was  given  at  the  hospital  with- 
out charge. 

Air-tight  metal  garbage-cans  were  provided,  and  were 
kept  in  serviceable  condition.  Garbage  and  refuse  were 
collected  every  day  or  two,  hauled  away  and  burned. 
No  breeding-places  for  flies  were  allowed  to  exist.  Fly- 
traps were  used  constantly.  All  toilets  and  buildings 
where  flies  would  be  attracted  were  screened  and  pro- 
vided with  special  screened  entrances.  Sleeping  quar- 
ters were  scrubbed,  aired  and  disinfected  frequently.  Iron 
springs  and  mattresses  were  provided,  and  these  were  taken 
out  and  cleaned  periodically.  The  cost  of  this  work  was 
not  high,  but  the  results  were  most  satisfactory,  as  the 
general  health  of  the  community  has  always  been  away 
above  average;  there  have  been  no  epidemics  of  any  kind 
and  only  one  case  of  typhoid,  which  probably  originated 
outside  of  camp. 

This  helpful,  humanitarian  spirit  has  been  para- 
mount from  the  inception  to  the  completion  of  the 
work,  so  far,  and  I  am  sure  will  continue  to  the  end. 
I  speak  in  sincere  earnestness  when  I  affirm  that  I 
know  of  no  body  of  men,  in  public  work,  so  single- 
eyed,  so  devoted,  so  absolutely  absorbed  in  their 
work,  as  I  have  found  the  engineers  of  the  United 
States  Reclamation  Service  to  be.  These  are  the 
men  I  would  crown  with  laurel,  the  public  servants 
I  would  serenade  (if  such  a  procedure  is  ever  desir- 
able), the  leaders  I  would  decorate  with  honours  and 
titles.  The  debt  of  gratitude  the  Nation  owes  to 
them  can  never  be  estimated,  never  adequately  ap- 
preciated, never  repaid. 

And  yet,  in  a  speech  made  at  Stanford  University, 


12         RECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

California,  March  24,  1911,  ex-president  Roosevelt 
gave  full  notice  to  the  men  engaged  in  the  great  work 
of  the  Eeclamation  Service  as  to  what  they  might 
expect  from  both  government  and  people.  He  had 
learned  that  republics  proverbially  are  ungrateful, 
and  said :  i  i  There  will  be  no  exceptional  reward  for 
these  men.  Those  who  are  sufficiently  prominent 
will  ultimately  be  investigated  by  Congress.  That 
you  will  have  to  expect. " 

In  spite,  however,  of  this  doleful  prognostication 
by  one  whose  experience  and  practical  knowledge  of 
congresses  none  can  question,  this  Army  of  Peace 
holds  steadily  not  only  to  its  work,  but  to  the  high 
democratic  ideals  that  originated  it. 


CHAPTEE  II 

THE  ORIGIN    OF   THE   RECLAMATION  ACT 

In  other  chapters  a  brief  recital  is  made  of  indi- 
vidual work  leading  to  the  passage  of  the  Eeclama- 
tion  Act  by  Congress.  To  give  full  attention  to  the 
claims  of  all  who  aided  in  its  passage  is  impossible, 
even  were  it  necessary.  It  seems  to  me  important, 
however,  that  some  idea  of  the  gigantic  task  the  pas- 
sage of  such  a  measure  entails  upon  many,  should 
be  given  to  the  general  reader.  I  have  already 
shown  how  Major  Powell  began  the  campaign  of 
education,  laying  the  foundations  of  the  work  to  be  in 
the  fundamental  principles  of  human  brotherhood. 
Also  how  he  trained  some  of  the  later  leaders  and 
workers  while  they  were  his  subordinates  in  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey.  The  helpful  lay 
work  of  William  E.  Smythe  and  George  H.  Maxwell, 
in  the  campaign  of  education,  was  of  inestimable 
value,  but  actual  results  of  legislation  were  a  prime 
essential,  when  the  time  was  ripe.  This  was  accom- 
plished as  follows. 

The  Senate  and  House  of  Eepresentatives  were 
both  familiar  with  irrigation  bills,  but  they  were  all 
local  and  framed  solely  for  the  benefit  of  specific  dis- 
tricts. There  was  no  united,  broad,  comprehensive 
spirit  of  real  development  in  the  vision  of  those  who 
fathered  them.  The  members  of  the  East  and  South 
knew  nothing  and  cared  less  about  irrigation.  It 
was  a  subject  as  foreign  to  their  conceptions  of  the 

13 


14         EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

needs  of  the  United  States  as  though  it  had  applied 
to  Kamschatka  or  Beloochistan.  Even  President 
McKinley,  after  his  re-election,  made  no  reference 
to  it  in  his  message.  But  the  subject  was  discussed 
with  considerable  enthusiasm,  notably  at  the  ninth 
annual  session  of  the  National  Irrigation  Congress 
at  Chicago,  111.,  November  21  to  24,  1900.  At  this 
meeting  Mr.  Francis  G.  Newlands,  then  Eepresenta- 
tive  from  Nevada,  and  Mr.  George  H.  Maxwell, 
chairman  of  the  executive  committee  of  the  National 
Irrigation  Association,  were  particularly  energetic 
in  the  discussion  of  proposed  legislation.  At  that 
time  there  were  two  radically  opposing  views  strug- 
gling for  recognition.  The  first  was  for  national 
development  and  the  second  was  for  turning  over 
the  public  lands  or  their  proceeds  to  the  States. 
Messrs.  Newlands  and  Maxwell  were  particularly 
enthusiastic  in  their  advocacy  of  the  first  course. 

At  this  time  Frederick  H.  Newell  was  doing  im- 
portant work  in  the  Geological  Survey  along  na- 
tional irrigation  lines,  in  accordance  with  the  Powell 
policy  and  plans.  He  was  the  best  man,  therefore, 
in  the  United  States,  to  give  definite  and  practical 
shape  to  any  contemplated  legislation,  and  on  No- 
vember 30,  1900,  Mr.  Newlands  called  upon  him  to 
discuss  a  bill  which  he  proposed  to  introduce  into 
the  House,  in  which  he  was  then  a  representative 
from  Nevada.  At  his  request  Mr.  Newell  prepared 
a  draft  of  a  bill,  which  he  introduced  on  December 
17,  relating  particularly  to  water  storage  on  the 
Humboldt  Eiver  in  Nevada. 

Let  Dr.  Newell  now  tell  the  story  in  his  own  words, 
as  given  in  his  testimony,  February  5,  1909,  before 


THE  EECLAMATION  ACT  15 

the  Committee  on  Irrigation  of  Arid  Lands,  House 
of  Kepresentatives. 

At  that  time  he  [Mr.  Newlands]  was  convinced  that  there 
should  be  a  more  general  bill,  and  I  assisted  him  in  drafting 
a  measure  along  the  lines  of  the  Kiver  and  Harbour  bill. 
He  continued  his  agitation  of  the  subject  in  and  out  of 
Congress  and  had  a  series  of  evening  meetings  at  his  resi- 
dence, where,  on  January  8,  1901,  I  had  the  pleasure  of 
delivering  an  illustrated  talk,  showing  lantern  slides  similar 
to  those  which  I  have  shown  before  this  committee.  There 
were  present  at  that  time  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  and 
many  of  the  western  Members  of  Congress;  in  all  about 
sixteen  public  men. 

Growing  out  of  this  activity  both  committees  of  the 
House,  namely,  that  on  Public  Lands  and  that  on  Arid 
Lands,  began  to  hold  meetings.  The  hearings  before  the 
Committee  on  Public  Lands  were  held  on  January  11,  18, 
23  and  30,  and  were  addressed  by  Mr.  Newlands,  Mr.  Max- 
well, myself,  and  others.  The  bill  presented  by  Mr.  New- 
lands  was  H.  B.  12844,  and  served  as  a  text  for  his  dis- 
cussion. The  Committee  on  Irrigation  of  Arid  Lands  held 
hearings  from  January  28  to  February  9. 

During  the  progress  of  these  hearings  Mr.  Newlands  kept 
up  his  activity,  and  on  January  17  gave  a  dinner  to  the 
Public  Lands  Committee  at  which  the  outlines  of  the  bill 
were  discussed  in  general  terms,  and  on  January  22  he 
asked  me  to  assist  in  drawing  another  bill.  On  January 
25  my  records  show  that  we  discussed  the  bill,  setting  aside 
the  proceeds  of  sale  of  lands  for  purposes  of  irrigation,  and 
with  Mr.  Maxwell's  advice  it  was  put  in  definite  form. 
The  next  day  after  some  further  consideration  of  the  pro- 
visions with  Mr.  Maxwell  and  myself,  Mr.  Newlands  intro- 
duced the  bill,  H.  R.  13846  (56th  Cong.,  2d  Sess.),  setting 
aside  moneys  received  from  the  sale  and  disposal  of  public 
lands. 

This  bill  (H.  R.  13846)  attracted  at  once  considerable 
attention  and  formed  the  basis  for  a  number  of  similar  bills 
introduced  by  other  members.  It  contained  the  principal 


16         RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

elements  of  the  Reclamation  Act  as  finally  passed.  The 
first  section  set  aside  the  money  derived  from  the  proceeds 
of  public  lands  and  authorized  construction,  and  the  second 
section  authorized  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  through  the 
Director  of  the  Geological  Survey,  to  continue  the  examina- 
tion and  ascertain  the  practicability  of  diverting  rivers  and 
of  providing  supplies  of  water  by  artesian  wells.  The  third 
section  provided  that  reports  should  be  made,  and  the 
fourth  section  covered  the  question  of  withdrawal  of  lands. 
Provision  was  made  that  "the  right  to  the  use  of  water 
shall  be  perpetually  appurtenant  to  the  land  irrigated  and 
beneficial  use  shall  be  the  basis,  the  measure,  and  the  limit 
of  the  right,"  this  being  the  language  which  Mr.  Maxwell 
had  worked  out  at  various  sessions  of  the  Irrigation  Con- 
gress. Provision  was  also  made  for  irrigating  private 
lands  and  for  making  payment  in  ten  annual  instalments, 
limiting  the  entry  to  80  acres. 

The  next  question  discussed  by  Mr.  Newlands  and  his 
friends  was  that  of  getting  the  bill  advantageously  intro- 
duced in  the  Senate,  as  it  had  been  proposed  in  the  House 
by  a  member  of  the  party  in  opposition.  After  considerable 
discussion  at  Mr.  Newlands'  residence,  and  acting  on  the 
advice  of  Senator  Pettigrew  and  others,  it  was  concluded 
to  ask  Senator  Hansbrough  to  introduce  the  bill.  Mr. 
Maxwell  was  asked  to  approach  him  on  the  subject.  As  a 
result,  on  January  31,  Senator  Hansbrough  introduced  the 
bill  as  S.  5833.  (He  refused  at  first  and  was  persuaded 
with  difficulty.)  This  was  reported  from  the  Senate  Com- 
mittee on  Public  Lands  on  February  4,  1901,  with  a  few 
amendments,  which  were  subsequently  rejected. 

In  the  meantime,  Mr.  Newlands  was  actively  at  work  dis- 
cussing his  original  bill  (13846)  and  perfecting  it  in  detail. 
He  introduced  it  again  and  again  under  different  numbers. 
It  appears  as  H.  R.  14088,  of  February  6 ;  H.  R.  14326,  of 
March  1 ;  and  still  again  as  H.  R.  14338,  the  changes  in  each 
case  leading  toward  the  form  ultimately  adopted.  The 
hearings  of  the  House  Committee  resulted  finally  in  report 
from  the  Committee  on  Public  Lands,  being  known  as 
Report  No.  2954,  and  presenting  a  bill  known  as  H.  R. 


THE  EECLAMATION  ACT  17 

14280,  embodying  the  idea  of  a  reclamation  fund  and  au- 
thorizing the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  to  make  surveys  and 
examinations  and  to  construct  the  work.  It  is  essentially  a 
brief  summary  of  the  first  part  of  the  Newlands  bills. 

.  .  .  The  closing  days  of  the  Fifty-sixth  Congress  were 
marked  by  great  activity  in  the  introduction  of  similar  bills 
and  discussion  of  them.  The  attention  of  the  entire  coun- 
try was  drawn  to  the  subject  by  the  sentiment  broadly  dis- 
seminated that  one  of  the  reasons  for  Senator  Carter's 
"  talking  to  death "  the  Kiver  and  Harbour  bill  was  found 
in  the  fact  that  the  West  could  not  secure  recognition  of  its 
needs.  With  the  close  of  this  Congress  there  seemed  to  be 
a  clearly  outlined  policy,  looking  toward  the  early  enact- 
ment of  legislation  along  the  lines  indicated  above,  and 
which  would  carry  out  the  pledges  made  by  the  different 
political  parties. 

The  matter  was  not  allowed  to  rest,  but  was  discussed 
at  the  various  conventions.  Efforts  were  revived  to  side- 
track the  idea  of  national  reclamation  by  turning  the  pro- 
ceeds from  the  disposal  of  public  lands  over  to  state 
officials.  Enough  was  done  in  this  direction  to  stimulate 
the  friends  of  national  irrigation  to  still  greater  efforts. 

Immediately  following  the  death  of  President  McKinley, 
on  September  14,  1901,  Mr.  Roosevelt  gave  personal  atten- 
tion to  the  subject,  and  on  the  next  but  one  Sunday  follow- 
ing I  was  instructed  to  meet  him,  and  on  the  afternoon  of 
September  23,  at  the  house  of  his  sister,  Mrs.  Cowles,  he 
discussed  fully  the  whole  situation,  asking  Mr.  Gifford 
Pinchot  and  myself  to  prepare  memoranda  which  he  might 
use  in  his  first  message  to  Congress  on  the  subject  of  fores- 
try and  irrigation.  This  message  called  the  attention  of 
the  Fifty-seventh  Congress  to  the  matter.  It  was  already 
in  the  minds  of  the  western  members,  but  they  seemed 
hopelessly  divided  on  the  subject. 

It  was  recognized  that  if  success  was  to  be  attained  there 
must  be  unity  of  action.  Accordingly  a  general  meeting  of 
western  members  was  held  on  December  3,  1901,  and  an 
organization  perfected  by  the  selection  of  Senator  Francis 
E.  Warren,  of  Wyoming,  as  chairman. 


18         EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

This  committee  held  almost  daily  sessions,  and  Mr.  New- 
lands,  as  secretary,  submitted  a  report  on  December  28, 
1901,  with  a  draft  of  a  bill  which  embodied  the  ideas  of  the 
original  Newlands  bill  and  the  legislation  favourably  re- 
ported by  the  Senate  Committee  on  Public  Lands  and  Arid 
Lands. 

Final  action  on  the  subject  was  set  for  January  7,  1902. 
From  this  time  forward  the  progress  of  the  Reclamation 
Act  was  confined  mainly  to  matters  of  detail  in  securing 
the  attention  of  Members,  organizing  forces,  and  arousing 
public  opinion.  In  the  latter  Mr.  Maxwell  was  particularly 
active.  The  history  of  the  passage  of  the  bill  is  in  the 
debates  in  the  Congressional  Record.  It  finally  passed  the 
House  on  June  13,  and  became  a  law  upon  the  signature 
of  the  President  on  June  17,  1902.  It  is  interesting  and 
instructive  to  read  the  various  successive  drafts  and  note 
the  changes  in  language,  denoting  the  great  care  with  which 
every  word  and  line  has  been  scrutinized. 

A  study  of  the  changes  is  valuable  in  explaining  why  the 
Reclamation  Act  has  been  so  successful.  Many  of  the  men 
who  are  not  conversant  with  the  great  care  with  which  the 
bill  was  prepared  have  expressed  surprise  that  so  few 
changes  are  considered  necessary  even  after  six  years  of 
practical  experience.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however, 
that  the  bill  was  drafted  and  revised  not  wholly  as  an 
experimental  measure,  but  as  one  resulting  from  many 
years'  investigation  of  the  subject  by  men  who  had  made  it 
a  life-work  to  thoroughly  know  the  physical  conditions  of 
the  West  and  the  results  accomplished  by  private  and  cor- 
porate enterprise.  The  bill,  in  other  words,  is  not  one 
which  has  been  prepared  on  a  theoretical  basis  by  men  who 
have  simply  been  students  of  economics,  but  before  its 
passage  was  subject  to  the  most  rigid  scrutiny  by  thor- 
oughly practical  irrigation  men  and  lawyers  versed  in  water 
litigation. 

President  Koosevelt's  interest  in  behalf  of  the  bill 
cannot  be  over-estimated  and  he  deserves  all  the 
honour  that  attaches  to  his  name  at  the  Koosevelt 


THE  EECLAMATION  ACT  19 

Dam  and  elsewhere  for  his  earnest  advocacy  of  the 
cause.  Unlike  his  predecessors  in  the  presidential 
chair  he  was  familiar  with  the  arid  West  and  its 
needs.  As  a  young  man  in  delicate  health  he  had 
come  out  to  a  ranch  in  Wyoming,  and  had  there  f  el- 
lowshiped  with  cowboys,  hunters  and  men  who  knew 
the  country  and  its  possibilities.  He  there  saw  with 
his  own  eyes  the  marvels  of  irrigation  on  soil  that 
was  called  desert,  and  this  and  a  hundred  other 
experiences  impossible  in  the  East,  gave  him  not  only 
a  knowledge  of  the  West,  but  an  intuitive  sympathy 
with  it  that  could  have  been  gained  in  no  other  way. 
In  his  first  message  he  put  the  question  upon  a  na- 
tional basis.  He  said : 

The  reclamation  of  the  unsettled  arid  public  lands  pre- 
sents a  different  problem.  Here  it  is  not  enough  to  regu- 
late the  flow  of  streams.  The  object  of  the  Government 
is  to  dispose  of  the  land  to  settlers  who  will  build  homes 
upon  it.  To  accomplish  this  object  water  must  be  brought 
within  their  reach. 

The  pioneer  settlers  on  the  arid  public  domain  chose 
their  homes  along  streams  from  which  they  could  them- 
selves divert  the  water  to  reclaim  their  holdings.  Such 
opportunities  are  practically  gone.  There  remain,  how- 
ever, vast  areas  of  public  land  which  can  be  made  available 
for  homestead  settlement,  but  only  by  reservoirs  and  main- 
line canals  impracticable  for  private  enterprise.  These 
irrigation  works  should  be  built  by  the  National  Govern- 
ment. The  lands  reclaimed  by  them  should  be  reserved  by 
the  Government  for  actual  settlers,  and  the  cost  of  con- 
struction should,  so  far  as  possible,  be  repaid  by  the  land 
reclaimed.  The  distribution  of  the  water,  the  division  of 
the  streams  among  irrigators,  should  be  left  to  the  settlers 
themselves,  in  conformity  with  state  laws  and  without  in- 
terference with  those  laws  or  with  vested  rights. 


20         EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

Then,  in  speaking  specifically  of  irrigation  of  the 
arid  West  in  detail,  he  followed  closely  the  lines  laid 
down  in  the  Newlands  bill. 

To  show,  however,  how  its  enemies  sought  to 
emasculate  the  true  democracy  of  the  bill,  it  is  well  to 
refer  to  the  fact  that  in  joint  committee  the  feature 
of  Mr.  Newlands '  bill  providing  for  the  withdrawal 
of  lands  from  entry  under  all  laws  except  the  home- 
stead, without  the  benefit  of  the  commutation  clause, 
until  the  works  should  be  finished  and  the  water  ac- 
tually ready  for  delivery,  was  stricken  out  by  the 
committee. 

As  William  E.  Smythe  effectively  states  it : 

This  action  was  intensely  disappointing  to  the  organized 
irrigation  movement,  who  believed  it  was  done  solely  in  the 
interest  of  land-grabbers  who  desired  to  get  possession  of 
the  choicest  morsels  of  the  public  domain  in  advance  of 
homeseekers.  George  H.  Maxwell  declared  that  it 
amounted  to  a  betrayal  of  the  most  sacred  objects  of  the 
movement  and  said  it  was  infinitely  preferable  that  the 
entire  measure  should  be  lost  at  that  time  rather  than  that- 
a  condition  should  be  created  under  which  it  would  be  not 
only  possible,  but  probable,  that  the  lands  would  be  stolen 
before  the  genuine  homemaker  could  get  an  opportunity  to 
file  upon  them.  His  aggressive  stand  aroused  a  storm  of 
opposition  to  the  amendment.  It  resulted  in  an  animated 
conference  at  the  White  House,  at  which  the  President 
announced  that  he  would  not  sign  the  bill  in  that  shape. 
The  original  provision  was  then  restored  so  that  it  was 
made  impossible  for  any  one  to  obtain  title  to  public  lands 
irrigated  by  the  Government,  without  five  years'  residence 
and  actual  cultivation. 

Thus  restored  to  its  original  condition  the  bill 
passed  the  House,  June  3,  1902,  by  a  vote  of  146  to 
55.  President  Koosevelt  signed  it  on  June  17,  the 
127th  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill. 


CHAPTEE  in 

IRRIGATED   LAND   FOB   THE   LANDLESS 

For  centuries,  in  every  so-called  civilized  country, 
the  land  has  been  the  property  of  the  few.  The 
masses  of  the  people  were  allowed  to  live  upon  it,  to 
work  it,  to  make  it  productive,  but  the  ownership  and 
whatever  profit  accrued  from  its  cultivation  be- 
longed to  the  few  who  claimed  its  possession. 

True  democracy  has  sought  to  change  this  condi- 
tion. A  practical  belief  in  the  brotherhood  of  man 
compels  the  endeavour  to  put  our  brothers  upon  as 
good  a  footing  as  we  ourselves  stand.  But  human 
selfishness  dies  hard.  It  thinks  first  not  only  of 
itself,  and  its  actual  needs,  but  its  refinements,  lux- 
uries and  even  dissipations,  and  looks  on,  as  none  of 
its  affair,  at  the  pathetic  and  oftentimes  vain  strug- 
gles of  others  less  able,  less  fortunate,  or  less  rude 
than  themselves  in  the  strenuous  battle  of  life. 

While  the  new  day  has  "  dawned, "  it  has  not  yet 
come  to  its  full  high  noon.  The  day  of  large  land- 
ownerships  is  not  yet  passed,  I  regret  to  say ;  but  it 
has  begun  to  pass.  A  break  has  been  made.  The 
vast  land-holdings  in  America  are  being  divided,  and 
the  different  countries  of  Europe,  even,  are  awaken- 
ing to  the  fact  that  the  monstrous  injustice  of  the 
so-called  higher  class,  in  holding  their  vast  estates 
without  adequate  taxation,  and  sometimes  with  no 
taxation  at  all,  can  no  longer  be  tolerated.  The  day 
is  coming  foreshadowed  in  Edwin  Markham's  "Man 

21 


22         EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

with  the  Hoe, ' '  when  the  brutal  creature,  bowed  down 
by  the  weight  of  centuries,  shall  begin  to  rise  in  dumb 
rebellion.  His  eye  is  catching  the  flash  of  God's  own 
light  of  freedom  and  real  manhood.  He  is  beginning 
to  stand  upright;  to  see  the  "swing  of  Pleiades," 
and  to  feel  the  beginnings  of  desires  and  aspirations 
to  which  he  has  hitherto  been  a  stranger.  He  sees 
these  wide  lands  in  another  light  than  did  his  fore- 
fathers. Why  should  he  not  own  a  small  fraction  of 
them?  or  at  least  be  enabled  to  cultivate  them  and 
reap  the  produce  for  himself  and  his  family,  rather 
than  for  others  f 

Little  by  little  these  dreams  and  newly  sprung 
aspirations  have  grown.  Slowly  men  have  seen  and 
realized  their  inherent  birthright.  Now  they  are 
crying  in  loud  chorus;  "It  is  for  us  to  possess  what 
the  Creator  evidently  intended  should  be  ours  at  least 
for  use  and  blessing." 

The  Homestead  Laws  of  the  United  States  were 
this  country's  answer  to  this  essentially  natural  hu- 
man cry.  Thousands  of  pioneers  settled  upon  the 
public  lands,  struggled  up  from  poverty  to  affluence 
as  the  result  of  their  own  endeavours  upon  the  soil 
of  a  free  republic,  and  thus  demonstrated  to  the 
world  the  inherent  power  of  a  true  though  not  fully 
developed  democracy. 

Our  homestead  laws,  however,  were  abused,  as 
were  the  desert,  forestry,  and  mining  land  acts. 
Capitalists,  by  fraud  and  collusion,  secured  large 
tracts  of  land,  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  democracy, 
and  held  them  for  speculation.  At  first,  neither  the 
officials  of  government  nor  the  people  seemed  to 
care,  but  after  a  few  generations  had  passed  it  was 


IRRIGATED  LAND  FOR  THE  LANDLESS    23 

discovered  that  the  public  lands  were  shrinking  with 
fearful  rapidity.  All  the  choice  pieces  were  already 
absorbed  from  the  public  domain.  Nothing  but  the 
undesirable  portions  remained,  or  the  barren  and 
desolate  desert  areas  of  the  West  that  were  regarded 
as  practically  useless. 

This  cry  led  to  a  tightening  of  the  laws.  But  the 
locking  of  the  doors  of  the  land  stables  did  not  bring 
back  the  stolen  horses.  They  were  gone,  and  gone 
forever. 

Hence,  when  the  fathers  of  irrigation  began  their 
campaign,  they  decided  to  safeguard  as  far  as  possi- 
ble the  irrigated  arid  lands  from  the  thief,  the  mon- 
opolist, the  grabber,  and  keep  them  to  become  the 
actual  homesteads  of  those  who  would  live  upon,  im- 
prove, and  actually  enjoy  them. 

How  well  they  accomplished  their  aim  history  is 
rapidly  recording,  in  the  joyous  testimony  of  thou- 
sands and  thousands  of  families  who  are  landowners 
— and  in  spite  of  the  hardships  they  think  they  have 
had  to  endure,  are  a  thousandfold  better  off  than 
their  fellows  in  autocratically  governed  lands. 

Yet  few  there  are  who  can  see  that  these  joyous  re- 
sults have  come  about  through  the  aridity  of  the 
western  lands ;  that  had  these  public  lands  been  nat- 
urally watered,  as  those  are  in  the  East,  this  further 
triumph  of  democracy  would  not  have  taken  place, 
perhaps,  until  weary  and  bloody  centuries  had 
elapsed. 

It  is  this  very  feature  that  it  is  so  important  to 
discuss. 

There  are  certain  public  works  that  are  too  large, 
too  stupendous,  to  be  undertaken  by  any  but  the 


24         EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

government.  Such  was  the  building  of  the  dikes 
that  protect  Holland  from  the  sea;  the  great  road- 
systems  of  the  Eomans ;  the  building  of  the  Panama 
Canal;  and  the  leveeing  of  the  Mississippi  River. 
The  work  of  the  Reclamation  Service  is  of  this  same 
gigantic  character.  The  cost  of  a  single  dam  in 
several  instances  has  gone  into  the  millions  of  dol- 
lars, and  except  as  a  government  measure  the  carry- 
ing on  of  these  works  would  have  been  impossible. 
Had  the  lands  been  well  watered  as  those  east  of 
the  ninety- seventh  meridian  the  West  would  have 
been  settled  up  under  the  same  conditions  as  those 
that  obtained  east  of  this  line.  But  individual  set- 
tlers— after  the  first  few  had  located  upon  the  sides 
of  running  streams — could  not  cope  with  the  dry 
conditions.  Even  when  a  band  of  them  "got  to- 
gether" and  tried  to  put  in  their  diversion  dams 
and  canals  the  floods  and  freshets,  in  every  known 
case,  sooner  or  later  washed  them  out,  and  their  last 
estate  was  worse  than  their  first.  For,  in  many  in- 
stances, the  settlers  had  cleared  desert  lands  with 
incredible  labour,  levelled  them,  put  in  their  crops 
or  orchard,  relying  upon  a  constant  supply  of  water. 

So  long  as  water  flowed  they  were  happy,  and 
things  looked  promising,  but  when,  through  the 
washing  out  of  a  dam,  the  water  stopped,  then  actual 
Ruin  arose  and  grasped  them  by  the  throat.  It  was 
no  slow  process.  In  the  hot  sunshine  of  the  West 
one  week  without  water  on  their  crops  meant  dire 
disaster,  and  a  full  month,  irrevocable  ruin. 

The  farm-home-seeking  instinct  of  the  American 
people  urged  them  out  upon  the  public  lands,  but 
when  all  those  east  of  the  ninety-seventh  meridian 


IEEIGATED  LAND  FOB  THE  LANDLESS    25 

were  taken  up  the  cry  began  to  arise :  1 1  Give  us  the 
West."  To  the  uninformed  Easterner  the  cry  was 
absurd.  The  West  was  a  desert.  We  have  but  to 
read  the  expressions  of  some  of  our  wisest  states- 
men in  the  houses  of  Congress  to  know  how  useless 
the  major  portion  of  the  lands  of  the  "  great  west- 
ern deserts  "  were  regarded.  Contempt  for  their 
possibilities  was  the  least  expression  of  the  popular 
eastern  disregard.  Hence  the  need  for  the  cam- 
paign of  education,  so  effectively  organized  and  car- 
ried on  by  Powell,  Smythe,  Maxwell,  and  by  New- 
lands  in  the  House  and  Senate.  To  the  millions  of 
the  East  the  West  was  "the  land  that  God  forgot." 
In  the  light  of  the  experiences  of  today  how  fatuous 
was  this  blindness.  Yet  how  true  it  is  that  what  man 
today,  in  his  ignorance,  regards  as  a  curse  may  to- 
morrow turn  out  to  be  his  greatest  blessing.  The 
scientist  now  tells  us, — and  the  cultivation  of  millions 
of  acres  in  the  arid  West  has  proved  its  truth — that 
the  very  condition  of  aridity  is  an  assurance  of  great 
fertility  when  water  is  applied.  Professor  E.  W. 
Hilgard  of  the  University  of  California,  the  greatest 
agricultural  expert  the  West  has  produced,  thus 
stated  the  case : 

Soils  are  formed  from  rocks  by  the  physical  and  chemi- 
cal agencies  commonly  comprehended  in  the  term  weather- 
ing, which  includes  both  their  pulverization  and  chemical 
decomposition  by  atmospheric  action.  Both  actions,  but 
more  especially  the  chemical  one,  continue  in  the  soil  itself ; 
the  last  named  in  an  accelerated  measure,  so  as  to  give  rise 
to  the  farmer's  practice  of  "fallowing'' — that  is,  leaving 
the  land  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air  in  a  well-tilled 
but  implanted  condition,  with  a  view  to  increasing  the 
succeeding  year's  crops  by  the  additional  amount  of  plant- 


26         EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

food  rendered  available,  during  the  fallow,  from  the  soil 
itself. 

This  weathering  process  is  accompanied  by  the  forma- 
tion of  new  compounds  out  of  the  minerals  originally  com- 
posing the  rock.  Some  of  these,  such  as  zeolites  and  clay, 
are  insoluble  in  water,  and  therefore  remain  in  the  soil, 
forming  a  reserve  of  plant-food  that  may  be  drawn  upon 
gradually  by  plants;  while  another  portion,  containing 
especially  the  compounds  of  the  alkalies — potash  and  soda 
— are  easily  soluble  in  water.  Where  the  rainfall  is  abun- 
dant these  soluble  substances  are  currently  carried  into  the 
country  drainage,  and  through  the  rivers  into  the  ocean. 
Among  these  are  potash,  lime,  magnesia,  sulphuric  and  a 
trifle  of  phosphoric  acids.  Where,  on  the  contrary,  the 
rainfall  is  insufficient  to  carry  the  soluble  compounds 
formed  in  the  weathering  of  the  soil-mass  into  the  country 
drainage,  those  compounds  must  of  necessity  remain  and 
accumulate  in  the  soil. 

Is  it  not  singular,  in  view  of  Professor  Hilgard's 
contention,  that  careful  readers  and  observers  had 
never  noted  that  the  most  fertile  countries  were  the 
arid  ones,  and  not  the  humid  and  well- watered  ones? 
In  spite  of  crude  implements  and  obsolete  methods 
India,  China,  Egypt,  Palestine  and  other  arid  or 
semi-arid  lands  are  the  most  famous  for  their  fertil- 
ity. Various  explanations  for  this  fact  have  been 
offered,  as,  for  instance,  the  commonly  referred  to 
overflowing  of  the  Nile,  thus  depositing  its  fertilizing 
sediment  upon  the  land.  This  idea  held,  and  still 
holds,  so  firmly  that  many  believe  it  is  the  sole  ex- 
planation, and  yet  in  the  Colorado  Eiver  country,  the 
irrigation-farmers  are  spending  many  thousands  of 
dollars  in  eliminating  this  river-sediment  before  the 
water  reaches  their  lands. 

There  are  other  conditions,  however,  than  the  f er- 


IEEIGATED  LAND  FOE  THE  LANDLESS     27 

tility  of  the  soil  that  render  arid  countries  desirable 
to  live  in.  It  is  no  mere  figure  of  speech  to  refer  to 
them  as  "  lands  of  blue  sky,  sunshine,  pure  air  and 
cool  nights."  The  arid  West  is  the  nation's  God- 
given  sanitarium.  How  many  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands have  found  it  so.  There  is  no  muggy,  over- 
powering, sweltering  heat,  day  or  night ;  fierce,  biting 
heat,  there  certainly  is,  but  it  is  dry  and  therefore 
not  conducive  to  sunstroke  or  apoplexy,  or  the  lesser 
discomfort  of  perpetual  stickiness. 

This  absence  of  humidity  renders  both  heat  and 
cold  far  more  bearable  and  therefore  arid  countries 
are  more  desirable  as  places  of  residence,  winter  and 
summer,  especially  for  the  old  and  feeble,  the  frail  or 
diseased,  than  those  that  are  humid. 

To  go  back  now,  however,  to  the  cry  of  the  home- 
seeker  for  these  arid  western  lands.  To  be  lived  up- 
on they  must  be  made  fertile  by  the  application  of 
water.  This  could  be  done  only  by  the  co-operation 
of  a  number  of  settlers,  or  by  the  intervention  of  the 
government,  and  in  either  case  the  demand  arose  for 
co-operative  effort  and  co-operative  purpose. 
Alone,  a  man,  however  able  and  industrious,  starved. 
He  could  not  turn  the  course  of  a  river,  build  a  canal 
system,  conduct  water  across  great  ravines  or  yawn- 
ing chasms^  or  construct  immense  storage-dams. 
Co-operation,  therefore,  was  imperative.  The  value 
of  the  learning  of  this  lesson,  prior  to  the  Govern- 
ment's taking  upon  itself  the  burden  of  reclamation, 
few  can  estimate.  It  is  the  chief  secret  for  the  dif- 
ference that  every  sentient  person  from  the  East 
feels  immediately  he  strikes  the  West.  There  is  a 
new  " feeling"  in  the  very  atmosphere.  The  land  is 


28         BECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

different,  the  scenery  is  different,  the  people  and 
their  habits  are  different. 

The  co-operative  efforts  of  the  men  of  the  West 
also  taught  them  many  other  important  lessons, 
which  are  to  influence  mankind's  progress  to  the  end 
of  time.  For  instance,  they  began  to  realize  that  the 
final  test  of  "right"  to  water  was  that  it  be  put  to 
beneficial  use.  The  old  English  law  of  riparian 
rights,  viz.,  that  one  was  entitled  to  a  proportionate 
share  of  all  water  flowing  by  his  land  in  accordance 
with  his  land-holdings,  long  since  was  found  to  be 
inadequate  to  cope  with  the  water  problems  of  the 
West.  The  present  laws,  therefore,  in  many  of  the 
states,  practically  declare  it  to  be  obsolete,  and  the 
usage  established  by  the  Eeclamation  Service  is  now 
obtaining  on  every  hand,  viz.,  that  the  only  right  one 
can  have  to  water  that  is  needed  for  the  general  good, 
is  the  right  beneficially  to  use  it.  This  principle  is 
also  applied,  in  some,  perhaps  all,  of  the  western 
states  to  springs,  etc.,  originating  upon  lands  that 
are  privately  owned.  No  longer  can  a  selfish  pro- 
prietor say:  "I  own  this  water,  and  whether  I  care 
to  use  it  or  not  is  no  one's  business.  It  is  mine,  and 
here  it  stays  until  I  want  it."  The  State  steps  in, 
and  gives  to  any  person  who  will  beneficially  use  it, 
the  right  to  appropriate  and  pipe  it  away.  And  an 
actual  right  of  use  thus  gained  is  an  appurtenant  to 
the  land,  not  to  be  bartered,  or  sold  away  from  that 
land  but  kept  for  beneficial  use  there  and  there  only. 

In  order  to  aid  in  a  clear  understanding  as  to  the 
meaning  to  be  attached  to  the  term  "beneficial," 
there  have  been  many  conferences  upon  the  matter 
by  those  interested.  It  has  been  shown  clearly  that 


IEEIGATED  LAND  FOE  THE  LANDLESS    29 

the  most  beneficial  methods  are  those  that  produce 
the  best  results  from  the  most  economical  use.  As 
there  is  water  enough,  so  far  flowing,  developed,  or 
stored,  to  meet  the  demands  of  a  relatively  small  per- 
centage of  potentially  irrigable  lands  in  the  West,  it 
necessarily  follows  that  the  economical  use  of  water 
is  a  question  of  as  great  importance  to  the  public 
welfare  as  is  the  beneficial  use  to  the  welfare  of  the 
individual.  Therefore,  every  true  patriot,  every 
good  and  unselfish  citizen,  will  endeavour  to  instruct 
himself  that  he  can  the  more  economically  use  the 
water  that  a  beneficent  government  has  aided  him  in 
securing  for  his  personal  benefit. 

In  speaking  of  riparian  rights  there  is  another 
requirement  the  western  irrigation  usage  has  done 
away  with,  viz.,  that  all  users  of  water  from  a  river 
must  return  it  to  the  channel  undiminished  in  quan- 
tity. This,  of  course,  is  directly  antagonistic  to  ir- 
rigation, as  a  large  amount  is  absorbed  both  in  the 
soil  and  the  growing  things.  Hence  all  irrigation 
states  have  modified  or  rejected  the  riparian  doc- 
trine. 

When  the  Eeclamation  Act  was  being  considered 
these  essential  and  basic  principles — contrary  to  the 
universal  usage  of  the  world — forced  themselves  to 
the  forefront.  The  " practical  politicians"  laughed 
when  they  heard  such  expressions  as  "  There  shall  be 
no  monopoly  in  government-irrigated  land."  Yet 
who  is  there — except  the  monopolist  himself — that 
does  not  realize  the  immense  wrong  done  to  the  real 
homeseeker,  the  toiler,  the  would-be  farmer  who 
loves  the  land  he  desires  to  see  productive  under  his 
hands  with  an  intensity  he  cannot  suppress,  by  those 


30         KECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

who  "own"  land  for  speculative  purposes?  I  believe 
with  John  Euskin  that  the  time  will  come  when  such 
a  monopoly  will  be  regarded  by  decent  men  as  worse 
than  highway  robbery.  Major  Powell,  Senator 
Newlands  and  others  saw  that  all  our  laws  needed 
reform  in  this  matter,  but  they  determined,  if  pos- 
sible, to  so  construct  the  Eeclamation  Act  that  it 
would  not  need  to  be  reformed.  It  should  contain 
within  itself  the  leaven  that  would  ultimately  change 
all  laws  that  made  monopolies  of  the  things  of  God  in 
Nature  possible. 

They  planned,  therefore,  so  that  the  Eeclamation 
Act  forbade  the  delivery  of  water  on  any  govern- 
ment project  to  privately  owned  lands  to  a  greater 
extent  than  160  acres.  Thus  an  effort  was  made  to 
take  it  out  of  the  power  of  capitalists  and  speculators 
in  land  to  take  selfish  advantage  of  the  beneficent 
work  of  a  government  of  democracy  designed  for  the 
benefit  of  all  citizens  alike  who  desired  to  avail  them- 
selves of  it.  Pressure  was  thus  brought  on  the  own- 
ers of  large  tracts  to  divide  them,  to  sell  to  those  who 
would  develop  them,  and  thus  the  army  of  our  small 
and  prosperous  farmers  is  rapidly  growing. 

Even  sovereign  States  have  been  so  carried  away 
with  the  spirit  of  landlordism  that  they  have  sought 
to  hold  on  to  land  irrigated  by  the  Eeclamation  Serv- 
ice for  speculative  rises  in  price.  In  every  case 
this  spirit  has  been  checked  by  the  Service.  For 
instance,  the  State  of  Washington  owned  certain 
lands  in  the  Tieton  unit  of  the  Yakima  Project. 
Secretary  Lane  wrote  to  Governor  Lister,  calling  his 
attention  to  the  fact  that  "  development  is  arrested 
by  certain  State  lands  withheld  from  cultivation,  it 


IERIGATED  LAND  FOE  THE  LANDLESS     31 

is  alleged,  in  a  spirit  of  speculation,  the  State  hold- 
ing for  future  profit.'7 

The  governor  responded  that  he  would  bring  the 
matter  before  the  State  Land  Commission,  and  the 
lands  in  question  have  since  been  appraised  and  of- 
fered for  sale. 

The  farm  unit  upon  the  Reclamation  Projects  was 
fixed  at  forty,  sixty,  eighty  acres — seldom  more — 
and  private  owners  of  land  were  prohibited  from 
purchasing  a  water  right  for  more  than  160  acres  in 
one  ownership. 

Then  the  act  affirmed  the  people's  ownership  of 
water,  to  be  beneficially  used  after  it  had  been  con- 
served and  stored.  But  in  its  distribution  for  bene- 
ficial use  each  man,  no  matter  how  much  or  how  little 
land  he  owned,  should  be  on  an  equality  with  every 
other  man.  Here  was  a  new  note  in  pure  democracy. 
It  struck  at  water  monopoly,  and  practically  made 
the  water-right  belong  to  the  land,  from  which  noth- 
ing could  ever  alienate  it. 

The  storage  and  diversion  dams  were  to  be  built, 
canals  and  laterals  constructed,  and  water  actually 
put  upon  every  man's  land  by  the  government.  The 
costs  were  to  be  paid  back  in  ten  yearly  payments, 
without  interest,  and,  when  these  payments,  with  the 
annual  maintenance  and  operation  costs,  were  com- 
pleted, the  whole  works  were  to  be  turned  over  to  the 
people  who  owned  the  irrigated  lands. 

Again  the  politicians  laughed.  This  was  a  joke; 
it  was  revolutionary;  it  was  unconstitutional.  They 
did  not  regard  it  as  worth  serious  consideration.  It 
so  far  violated  the  old-time  political  methods  that 
they  could  not  see  the  handwriting  on  the  wall. 


32         EECLAIMING  THE  ABID  WEST 

Even  the  leaders  were  so  blinded — fortunately — that 
they  were  assured  the  bill  could  not  pass,  so  that  they 
made  no  attempt  to  muster  their  forces  to  defeat  it. 
And  none  were  more  astonished  than  they  to  find 
themselves  swept  to  defeat  by  the  response  of  the 
great  body  of  the  House  of  Eepresentatives  to  the 
popular  demand. 

It  was  the  tolling  of  the  bell  of  doom  to  selfish, 
monopolistic,  special-class  legislation.  They  did  not 
see  it.  Few  did,  but,  nevertheless,  it  is  perfectly 
clear,  and  future  centuries  will  note  this  as  the 
epoch-forming  time. 

The  act  was  passed.  The  president  had  signed  it. 
It  had  become  the  law  of  the  land.  Charles  D.  Wal- 
cott  was  appointed  the  first  Director,  and  F.  H.  New- 
ell the  Chief  Engineer.  The  organization  of  the 
workers  began,  and  the  politicians  now  took  it  upon 
themselves  to  dictate  as  to  who  should  be  employed, 
what  projects  should  be  started,  where  dams  should 
be  located,  or,  in  other  words  how  they  should  finger 
as  much  of  the  money  of  the  Service  as  they  could. 
Needless  to  add  a  fight  was  on  at  once.  Steadily, 
but  firmly,  they  were  bidden  to  keep  their  hands  off, 
and  this  policy  has  ever  since  been  adhered  to. 

While  this  struggle  was  being  precipitated  in 
Washington,  another  of  a  different  character,  was 
being  forced  upon  the  engineers  in  the  field. 

Not  even  the  most  sanguine  of  the  workers  for  the 
establishment  of  the  Service  dreamed  of  the  impa- 
tience of  the  people  to  get  upon  the  land  as  soon  as 
the  bill  was  passed.  Demands  for  the  starting  of  the 
work  poured  in  from  home-hungry  people  all  over 


IEEIGATED  LAND  FOE  THE  LANDLESS     33 

the  West,  and  many  impatient  ones,  refusing  to  lis- 
ten to  the  wise  counsels  of  the  leaders,  rushed  upon 
the  land,  paid  their  preliminary  fees,  started  to  clear 
and  level  their  holdings,  built  their  rude  homes,  and 
then  were  compelled  to  sit  idle  because  water  could 
not  be  supplied  to  them  for  one,  two,  three,  or  more 
years  to  come. 

One  result  of  this  uncontrollable  impatience  was 
that  the  officials,  naturally  desirous  of  making  every 
reasonable  effort  to  meet  popular  need,  began  with 
very  limited  data  in  regard  to  the  probable  extent  of 
work  required  and  future  conditions  of  crops  and 
markets.  This  led,  naturally,  to  underestimates  of 
final  costs,  and  when  the  people  began  to  realize  that 
these  costs  were  larger  than  they  anticipated  and 
must  ultimately  be  paid,  considerable  dissatisfaction 
was  expressed. 

Yet  in  spite  of  difficulties  of  every  kind  the  work 
went  quietly  on.  And  it  is  a  joy  to  relate  that  more 
favourable  developments  arose  than  obstacles.  One 
of  these  was  the  realization  of  the  wonderful  possi- 
bilities for  the  development  of  electricity  on  the  va- 
rious projects.  Millions  of  dollars  will  ultimately 
be  saved  to  the  farmers  in  this  one  item  alone,  and 
in  the  chapters  on  the  Salt  Eiver,  Minidoka  and 
many  other  projects  it  will  be  seen  what  the  utili- 
zation of  this  power  already  signifies  to  the  farm- 
ers. 

It  was  soon  found,  also,  that  telephones  were  nec- 
essary for  the  actual  needs  of  the  engineers,  and,  as 
canal-systems  developed,  to  give  timely  warning  of 
floods,  breakages,  etc.  In  due  time  these  telephone 
systems  were  made  available  to  the  settlers,  and 


34         EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

when  the  projects  are  paid  for,  in  most  cases  they 
will  be  owned  and  operated  by  them. 

So  the  good  work  goes  on. 

How  wonderfully,  sometimes,  things  with  which 
we  are  perfectly  familiar  strike  us  with  new  force 
under  new  conditions.  For  a  life-time  I  have  sung 
the  majestic  chorus  of  Mendelssohn,  from  Elijah, 
"Thanks  be  to  God;  He  laveth  the  thirsty  land." 
Again  and  again  have  I  thrilled  to  its  passionate 
power,  but  never  did  I  dream  of  its  full  significance 
until  I  saw  water  pouring  through  the  irrigation 
canals  of  our  thirsty  West;  the  gentle  murmuring  of 
the  flowing  waters  suggesting  the  music  made  by  the 
land  as  it  sucked  up,  absorbed,  drew  into  every 
thirsty  pore,  the  life-giving,  stimulating,  seed-grow- 
ing fluid. 


CHAPTER  TV, 

SOME   OF   THE  DIFFICULTIES 

Many  of  the  difficulties  encountered  in  the  earlier 
days  of  the  agitation  for  irrigation  of  the  arid  West, 
in  the  passage  of  the  Keclamation  Act,  in  the  building 
up  of  the  organization  of  engineers,  etc.,  have  al- 
ready been  recounted.  There  are  others,  however, 
a  few  of  which  it  seems  well  to  present  to  my  readers 
that  they  the  more  fully  understand  the  greatness  of 
the  results  already  accomplished. 

Not  the  least  of  the  difficulties  the  Service  had  to 
contend  with  was  where  public  men  attempted  to  use 
their  positions  to  obtain  information  of  projects  un- 
der consideration,  so  that  they  might  pose  before  the 
public  as  directing,  influencing,  or  advising  the  Serv- 
ice to  their  political  advantage.  Again  and  again, 
both  at  the  head  offices  in  Washington,  and  the  local 
offices  throughout  the  country,  " prominent  men" 
would  appear,  and  indignantly  criticize  the  engi- 
neers and  others  for  their  "unnecessary  secrecy," 
refusal  to  give  out  facts  and  figures,  neglect  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  information  possessed  by  local 
authorities,  etc.,  etc. 

Yet  it  can  readily  be  seen,  now,  that  in  spite  of  the 
caution  and  care  of  the  Service,  the  most  casual  re- 
marks were  seized  upon  and  made  the  basis  for  later 
criticisms.  Take  the  Klamath  project  as  an  illus- 
tration. Because  of  the  very  listening  to  the  "local 
authorities,"  and  taking  the  "public  men  of  the  re- 

35 


36          EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

gion  into  their  confidence, "  the  tentative  remarks  of 
the  engineers  were  resolved  into  pledges  of  original 
cost  of  construction.  The  newspapers  and  others 
boomed  these  purely  casual  remarks,  based  generally 
upon  the  consideration  of  the  "facts  and  figures "  of 
the  ' ' local  experts. ' ' 

One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  was  often  caused 
by  the  settlers  themselves,  in  their  haste  to  get  upon 
the  land.  They  saw  the  water  that  was  to  change 
their  uncultivated  lands  running  to  waste.  It  ap- 
peared to  them  a  tremendous  quantity — sufficient  to 
irrigate  ten  times  more  land  than  they  had  located 
upon.  But  water  supplies  are  inconstant;  they 
vary  within  a  wide  range.  One  year  there  may  be  a 
heavy  rain-fall,  and  the  next  a  larger  still,  only,  how- 
ever, to  be  followed  by  three  or  four  seasons  of 
drought.  Think,  then,  of  the  terrible  predicament 
of  men,  with  their  families,  and  their  stock,  located 
upon  lands  which  they  have  reclaimed  from  the  orig- 
inal desert,  levelled,  ditched,  and  planted  out  to  or- 
chard or  crops — all  in  good  faith  and  in  supreme 
reliance  upon  the  ability  of  the  "government"  to 
supply  all  the  water  all  of  them  might  need,  when- 
ever they  needed  it.  Now  they  are  confronted  by  a 
serious  and  perilous  situation.  Nature  and  the  gov- 
ernment have  failed  them.  They  have  little  or  no 
water  at  the  very  time  they  must  have  it,  or  their 
crops  will  dry  up,  their  young  trees  will  die,  they 
themselves  will  be  ruined. 

Exactly  this  situation  has  occurred  both  before 
and  after  the  Service  entered  the  field.  Impatience 
and  want  of  foresight,  going  hand  in  hand,  often  pro- 
duce serious  consequences.  Many  a  man  has  toiled, 


SOME  OF  THE  DIFFICULTIES          37 

slaved  and  expended  his  little  savings  in  an  earnest 
endeavour  to  reclaim  land,  only  to  wake  up  to  find 
himself  unable  to  get  the  water  he  must  have,  and 
must  have  now,  to  save  his  crop  from  immediate 
destruction. 

As  far  as  it  was  humanly  possible  the  Service 
sought  to  avoid  these  dire  catastrophes,  but  human 
nature  is  urgent  and  insistent,  impatient  and  self- 
willed,  and  public  pressure  was  brought  to  bear  upon 
officials,  engineers  and  project  managers  to  lnurry 
things  up.  The  people  were  clamouring  for  water ; 
everybody  could  see  it  was  running  to  waste.  Why 
couldn't  they  have  it?  In  a  few  instances  they  were 
allowed  to  have  their  way,  only  to  come  to  a  realiza- 
tion that,  as  the  acreage  of  cultivation  increased,  it 
was  more  and  more  imperative  that  the  permanent 
supply  of  water  be  put  beyond  any  peradventure  of 
a  doubt.  And  the  only  way  this  could  be  done  was  by 
the  enlargement  of  storage  facilities.  Larger  dams, 
or  new  dams,  must  be  constructed.  This  meant  ad- 
ditional expense,  ultimately  to  be  borne  by  the  con- 
sumer, the  settler. 

Sometimes  it  was  discovered  that  the  peculiar  na- 
ture of  the  soil  required  far  more  water  than  had 
been  supposed.  Even  tests  and  years  of  farming  on 
one  area  of  a  project  gave  no  clue  to  the  conditions 
found  to  exist  on  some  other  part.  A  score,  a  hun- 
dred, new  elements  of  inequality,  or  disturbance, 
were  discovered,  and,  ere  the  project  could  be  said  to 
be  in  full  working  order,  all  these  elements  of  in- 
equality or  inharmony  must  be  removed  or  con- 
quered, no  matter  at  what  labour  or  expense. 

And  nobly  the  officials,  engineers  and  managers  of 


38         EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

the  Service  responded  to  these  demands  upon  their 
knowledge,  skill,  ingenuity,  tact,  patience,  and  equa- 
nimity. Settlers  who  had  started  in  to  undertake 
great  things  with  limited  capital,  and  even  more  lim- 
ited knowledge  of  what  was  before  them  and  must 
be  overcome,  could  not  always  see  what  was  being 
done  for  them,  and  how  much  thought  and  care  were 
required  to  remove  the  obstacles  that,  unexpectedly, 
had  sprung  up  in  their  path.  Unprejudiced  out- 
siders can  see  and  understand  and  they  unhesita- 
tingly commend  the  high  public  spirit,  the  pa- 
triotic adherence  to  unpleasant  duty  and  the  pouring 
forth  of  the  scientific  and  practical  knowledge  of 
men  who  were  seldom  paid  by  the  Government  any- 
thing like  the  amount  they  could  have  received  for 
less  work  elsewhere. 

One  of  the  unavoidable  errors  made  in  early  days 
of  all  irrigation  work — whether  undertaken  by  engi- 
neers of  the  Eeclamation  Service  or  of  other  organi- 
zations, was  the  placing  of  the  probable  cost  of  the 
enterprise  too  low.  There  were  no  precedents  for 
guidance  and  there  was  a  steadily  increasing  demand 
for  larger  and  better  works  than  those  at  first  con- 
templated. That  is  to  say,  if  the  original  estimates 
were  based  upon  wooden  structures  and  the  cheapest 
possible  method,  it  was  found  that  as  work  pro- 
gressed and  land  values  increased,  the  people  inter- 
ested made  demands  for  a  better  type  of  work  and 
for  larger  and  more  comprehensive  schemes.  While 
the  pioneers  were  satisfied  to  drive  across  the  canals 
and  ditches,  the  next  comers  insisted  upon  having 
good  bridges.  While  the  man  who  built  his  own  irri- 
gation lateral  was  satisfied  with  any  kind  of  rude 


SOME  OF  THE  DIFFICULTIES          39 

device  to  control  tlie  water,  his  successor  demanded 
from  the  Government  officials  the  very  best  and  latest 
pattern  of  water-gate,  thus  doubling  or  trebling  the 
assumed  cost. 

It  is  a  well  recognized  tendency  of  the  human  mind 
to  demand  the  very  best  of  machinery  and  service 
when  furnished  by  a  corporation  or  by  the  Govern- 
ment, and  there  is  an  equally  strong  or  greater  tend- 
ency to  question  or  even  repudiate  the  bill  when  ul- 
timately presented  for  payment.  Thus,  it  happened 
that  while  the  landlords  on  the  one  hand  urged  upon 
the  Government  officials  more  and  more  expensive 
work,  they  were  later  equally  insistent  that  they 
should  not  be  called  upon  to  pay  for  these  added 
facilities  and  greater  safeguards  but  that  they  should 
refund  only  what  they  regarded  as  the  original  esti- 
mates although  these  had  been  stated  at  the  time  as 
tentative  in  character  only  and  pertaining  to  the  rel- 
atively simple  works  then  under  consideration. 

This  question  of  the  estimated  cost  thus  formed  a 
matter  of  much  complaint.  At  the  outset  and 
throughout  all  of  the  operations  the  engineers  of  the 
Eeclamation  Service  have  at  all  times  and  on  all 
occasions  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  esti- 
mated cost  can  be  stated,  as  required  by  law,  only 
after  the  work  has  been  done  and  then  "shall  be 
determined  with  a  view  of  returning  to  the  Eeclama- 
tion fund  the  estimated  cost  for  construction  of  the 
project,  and  shall  be  apportioned  equitably."  The 
men  who  are  ultimately  to  pay  this  estimated  cost 
have  tried  to  hold  it  down  to  the  quantities  which 
they  allege  were  given  to  them  informally  during  the 
period  of  discussion  of  the  project  Moreover,  un- 


40         EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

der  pressure  of  self-interest,  many  of  them  forget 
the  qualifying  statement  made,  for  example,  that  the 
main  works  "will  cost  from  $20  to  $30  an  acre,  pro- 
viding we  do  not  build  many  permanent  head-gates, 
bridges,  and  provided  that  the  distribution  system 
is  constructed  by  the  farmers  themselves/'  In  the 
popular  mind,  only  the  lowest  figure  of  $20  per  acre 
remains  fixed  and  the  qualifying  clauses  disappear 
during  the  somewhat  heated  discussion  which  has 
followed. 

However  this  may  be,  there  was  so  much  to  do,  so 
many  projects  to  be  considered,  so  many  gigantic 
plans  to  inaugurate,  that  it  was  impossible  for  any 
body  of  men  to  go  carefully  over  all  of  the  details  and 
to  foresee  all  the  contingencies.  Not  being  gifted 
with  skill  of  prophecy,  the  engineers  could  not  fore- 
see the  steady  rise  in  prices  and  materials  and  la- 
bour, nor  the  decreased  efficiency  of  labour  due  to 
its  scarcity;  nor  was  it  permissible  for  them  to  as- 
sume that  there  would  be  unusual  or  unprecedented 
floods  or  catastrophes  such  as  experience  had  not 
shown  to  exist.  They  could  not  safely  predict  that  a 
great  part  of  the  land  when  reclaimed  would  not  be 
immediately  utilized  and  thus  would  fail  to  bring 
back  its  pro  rata  of  original  cost.  Even  had  they 
foreseen  clearly  and  accurately  prophesied  all  of 
these  conditions,  they  would  have  been  in  worse 
plight  because  no  one  would  have  believed  them  and 
they  would  not  have  been  entrusted  with  the  carrying 
out  of  the  work. 

These  and  other  alleged  mistakes  of  the  engineers 
have  been  greatly  exaggerated  because  they  fit  in 
with  a  very  insidious  doctrine  which  has  been  quietly 


SOME  OF  THE  DIFFICULTIES          41 

promulgated,  namely:  that  of  ultimate  repudiation 
by  the  land  owners  of  the  debt  owed  to  the  Govern- 
ment for  bringing  the  water  to  the  lands.  While 
the  local  politicians  appreciate  that  they  would  meet 
with  no  sympathy  in  the  unequivocal  proposition  to 
repudiate,  yet  they  very  practically  reason  that  if  it 
can  be  shown  that  mistakes  were  made  or  that  the 
final  cost  was  underestimated  at  a  period  five  or  ten 
years  before,  then  there  might  be  a  hope  of  inducing 
the  Government  to  accept  a  less  amount  than  was 
actually  expended.  This  indirectly  puts  a  cash  pre- 
mium upon  proof  of  the  engineers '  incompetence  or 
bad  judgment  and  has  resulted  in  many  unfair  at- 
tacks upon  men  who,  from  their  official  position,  are 
unable  to  defend  themselves  or,  because  of  proper 
self-respect,  do  not  care  to  enter  into  a  wordy  war. 
An  example  of  the  increase  of  cost  to  the  ulti- 
mate payor  of  the  bills,  namely  the  farmer,  over  that 
at  first  assumed,  is  the  Truckee-Carson  project,  the 
original  estimate  on  the  basis  of  works  then  proposed 
being  $22  per  acre  to  be  paid  in  ten  annual  instal- 
ments. This  was  raised,  to  the  lands  first  reclaimed, 
to  $26  per  acre ;  for  other  lands  $30  per  acre ;  and  to 
the  later  comers  who  had  the  advantage  of  increased 
facilities,  to  $60  per  acre.  It  should  be  noted,  how- 
ever, that  this  increase  of  charge  for  the  use  of  the 
water  is  far  less  than  the  unearned  increment  in 
value  of  the  land,  which  has  gone  to  the  land  owner 
and  has  raised  his  property  from  being  practically 
worthless  up  to  conditions  where  he  demands  a  hun- 
dred dollars  or  more  per  acre  for  the  raw  land  sim- 
ply because  the  Government  has  made  it  possible  for 
water  to  be  procured  at  any  price. 


42          RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

Many  similar  increases  over  the  first  assumed  or 
unofficial  newspaper  statements  might  be  given  but, 
to  those  who  are  not  financially  interested,  the  rea- 
sons are  seen  to  be  natural  and  beyond  fair  criticism. 

Numberless  difficulties  of  the  most  serious  charac- 
ter arose  from  the  failure  of  contractors  fully  to  in- 
vestigate conditions  before  putting  in  their  bids; 
consequent  inability  to  perform  their  contracts ;  the 
letting  of  sub-contracts  to  men  of  inadequate  finan- 
ces to  carry  the  work  through  to  completion;  the 
coming  of  storms — blizzards,  severe  snowfalls, 
heavy  rains,  floods — to  prevent  progress;  strikes  of 
workmen;  mismanagement;  rises  in  prices  of  ma- 
terial and  labour;  unforeseen  difficulties  and  condi- 
tions which  led  the  officials  of  the  Service,  in  honour, 
to  change  the  terms  of  contracts;  attachments  on 
contractors '  plants ;  delays  demanding  irritating  ex- 
tensions of  time ;  unfulfilled  promises  of  too-optimis- 
tic contractors;  breaking  down  of  machinery  and 
difficulties  experienced  in  making  repairs  at  such 
long  distances ;  accidents  to  workmen ;  disputes  over 
claims  for  damages  as  the  result  of  such  accidents; 
inadequate  equipment  of  contractors ;  the  inability  to 
secure  sufficient  men  and  teams  on  reasonable  terms, 
and  also  to  get  enough  to  do  urgent  work  on  time, 
prior  to  the  coming  of  surely-expected  floods,  frosts, 
storms,  etc.;  inability  of  contractors  to  realize  the 
magnitude  of  the  work  they  had  attempted,  etc.,  etc. 

What  a  long  list  it  is ;  things  great,  things  small, 
things  petty,  yet  all  needing  attention,  wisdom,  tact, 
and  patience  to  overcome.  Unforeseen  difficulties 
constantly  were  arising,  difficulties  that  it  was  im- 
possible to  foresee,  any  more  than  the  expert  engi- 


SOME  OF  THE  DIFFICULTIES          43 

neers  of  America,  engaged  on  the  Panama  Canal,  fore- 
saw the  slides  of  the  Culebra  Cut.  Nothing  but 
actual  work  revealed  these  conditions.  Of  a  similar 
character  were  the  side  hill  slides  on  the  St.  Mary's 
Canal  which  led  to  abandonment  of  the  affected  por- 
tion, and  its  construction  on  the  other  side  of  the 
river.  To  the  ignorant  layman  this  seems  a  pre- 
posterous procedure.  The  water  is  taken  out  from 
the  river  on  the  side  opposite  to  that  where  it  is 
needed  for  irrigation,  and  then  made  to  recross  the 
river  in  an  inverted  giant  siphon.  In  addition  to 
this  the  construction  on  the  "wrong"  side  implied 
building  across  the  dry  bed  of  a  creek  where  sand, 
silt  and  rocky  channels  existed;  the  crossing  of  a 
fierce  torrential  mountain  stream,  and  the  final  car- 
rying of  the  waters  of  an  850  second-foot  canal 
across  the  St.  Mary  Eiver  where,  at  the  most  favour- 
able location,  the  structure  must  be  over  half  a  mile 
long  and  provide  for  a  depression  of  about  175  feet 
and  be  carried  across  a  bridge.  Yet  careful  investi- 
gation and  actual  experience  demonstrated  that  it 
was  cheaper  to  abandon  the  work  partly  done,  meet 
the  difficulties  named  and  incur  the  expense  of  cross- 
ing the  river,  than  proceed  on  the  line  originally  laid 
down. 

Unforeseen  difficulties  wrecked  the  Pecos  Irriga- 
tion Company,  a  private  corporation,  when  great 
caves  developed  in  the  gypsum  formation  under  a 
certain  part  of  Lake  McMillan,  and  this  same  condi- 
tion rendered  the  abandonment  of  the  Hondo  Project 
necessary,  as  well  as  several  reservoirs  built  in  that 
part  of  New  Mexico  by  private  capital. 

One  of  the  great  problems  that  confronts  all  engi- 


44         RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

neers  in  the  irrigation  of  large  areas  is  that  of  drain- 
age. The  continuous  inpouring  of  water  raises  the 
sub-surface  water-table,  causing  boggy  or  marshy 
places,  and  sometimes  creating  ponds  of  consider- 
able extent.  Seepage  also  occurs,  and  this  creates 
its  own  peculiar  difficulties  that  are  both  tedious  and 
expensive  to  overcome. 

In  some  cases  where  the  canals  were  found  to  be 
in  very  pervious  ground  they  were  lined  with  clay 
or  cement  as  was  deemed  best.  Then  water  users 
were  urged  to  irrigate  their  land  in  the  shortest  pos- 
sible time,  be  as  economical  as  possible  in  applying 
the  water,  be  careful  about  wasting  water,  and  espe- 
cially at  nights,  and  to  construct  proper  waste-water 
ditches.  Main  or  trunk  drainage  ditches  or  canals 
were  also  provided. 

The  solution  of  the  problems  of  drainage  and  seep- 
age are  of  the  intensest  practical  interest  to  the 
farmer,  as  upon  them  often  depends  the  failure  or 
success  of  his  life-work,  and  to  the  scientific  and  tech- 
nical engineer  they  are  fascinating  as  giving  him 
the  material  for  mental  conflicts  which  men  delight 
in.  Naturally  in  a  nontechnical  work  of  this  charac- 
ter no  attempt  has  been  made  to  state  the  surface  and 
drainage  problems  that  have  arisen  on  the  various 
projects,  but  the  interested  reader  will  find  them 
thoroughly  presented  in  Director  A.  P.  Davis 's 
comprehensive  book,  Irrigation  Works  Constructed 
by  the  United  States  Government. 

The  most  practical  way  of  preventing  the  careless 
use  of  water,  such  as  ruins  15  to  20  per  cent  of  all 
irrigated  areas  is  through  "touching  the  vest  pocket 
nerve. "  While  the  irrigator  may  understand  and 


SOME  OF  THE  DIFFICULTIES          45 

appreciate  that  he  is  using  too  much  water,  and  is 
causing  injury,  yet  the  convenience  of  the  supply  or 
indifference  to  future  consequences  will  result  in  his 
continuing  the  destructive  process.  If,  however,  he 
is  told  that  he  can  use  all  the  water  he  wants  pro- 
viding he  pays  in  proportion,  he  quickly  begins  to 
take  notice.  This  policy  brought  out  by  the  engineers 
for  the  Eeclamation  Service  has  resulted  in  great 
advantage.  On  some  of  the  projects,  for  instance,  a 
man  is  permitted  to  have  water  at  the  rate  of  50^ 
per  acre-foot  for  the  first  acre-foot  applied  to  his 
irrigable  land.  For  the  next  he  is  to  pay  60^,  the 
total  being  a  fair  amount  for  the  year  or  season.  If 
he  needs  more  he  pays  at  a  steadily  increasing  rate, 
say  20#  for  the  next  %  acre-foot,  25^  for  the  next 
and  so  on  up  until  the  price  of  additional  water  be- 
comes prohibitive. 

It  is  wonderful  to  see  how  the  attitude  of  the  care- 
less man  changes  under  such  conditions.  He  may 
have  been  using  and  claiming  in  good  faith  that  he 
needed  6  acre-feet  on  his  sandy  land ;  when,  however, 
he  has  to  pay  at  an  increased  rate  for  everything 
over  two  acre-feet,  he  quickly  discovers  that  he  can 
not  only  get  along  with  part  of  the  water  but  can 
raise  crops  twice  the  value  of  those  previously  pro- 
duced. 

One  of  the  problems  that  has  arisen  to  disturb  the 
lay  minds  of  some  of  the  settlers  on  the  various  proj- 
ects has  been  the  disposal  of  the  natural  springe 
that  were  found  on  certain  lands,  or  that  developed 
after  the  Service  had  installed  its  dams  and  distrib- 
uting systems.  Many  legal  opinions  have  been  ex- 
pressed in  various  States  on  this  matter.  There 


46         RECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

does  not  seem  to  be  any  unanimity  of  law  upon  the 
subject,  but  the  Eeclamation  Service  has  insisted 
upon  certain  fundamental  principles,  two  of  which 
are  that  the  right  to  the  water  from  either  type  of 
springs  depends  upon  its  beneficial  use,  and  that  no 
right  can  be  sold  or  disposed  of;  it  can  merely  be 
exercised  as  an  individual  right  "for  use  on  the 
premises"  for  the  watering  of  stock,  domestic  use, 
etc. 

On  the  Sun  River  Project  it  was  found  that  alkali 
was  having  an  injurious  effect  upon  some  of  the  con- 
crete work.  One  of  the  engineers  while  repairing  a 
few  culverts,  attempted  to  replace  a  cracked  24-inch 
pipe.  This  pipe,  on  being  removed,  was  found  to 
be  not  only  cracked  but  very  much  softened.  Fur- 
ther investigation  revealed  that  the  entire  culvert 
was  in  the  same  condition.  Consequently,  the  pipe 
was  all  removed.  This  pipe,  after  being  in  the  air 
for  a  time,  hardened  a  very  little.  Further  investi- 
gation showed  that  the  concrete  near  the  water-line 
was  in  the  worst  condition  and  that  there  was  no 
difference  whether  the  concrete  was  a  dry  mixture, 
such  as  the  pipe  was  made  of,  or  a  slush  mixture  like 
the  head-walls,  or  mortar.  The  water  in  this  coulee 
was  strongly  alkaline. 

The  effect  of  the  alkali  on  many  of  the  pipes  is 
most  peculiar  and  quite  distinct  from  disintegration 
in  its  familiar  forms.  The  pipe  becomes  swollen  and 
cracks,  revealing  a  soft  or  putty-like  interior.  In 
other  pipe  and  in  most  concrete  in  mass  the  surface 
seems  to  soften  and  scale  off,  resembling  the  weath- 
ering of  a  stone. 

As  a  result  of  the  alkali  action  above  noted  and 


SOME  OF  THE  DIFFICULTIES          47 

similar  action  on  several  other  projects,  the  Recla- 
mation Service,  in  co-operation  with  the  Bureau  of 
Standards,  the  Office  of  Public  Roads  and  Rural  En- 
gineering of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  the 
Association  of  American  Portland  Cement  Manu- 
facturers, has  been  conducting  for  several  years  a 
thorough  investigation  of  the  effect  of  alkali  on  con- 
crete. 

The  conclusion  has  been  reached  that  the  disin- 
tegration is  caused  both  by  the  expansion  resulting 
from  crystallization  of  salts  in  the  pores  and  by 
chemical  action  of  the  solutions  with  the  constituents 
of  the  cement.  It  naturally  follows  and  has  been 
amply  proven  that  porous  concrete  due  to  either  lean 
or  dry  mixtures  is  most  subject  to  disintegration, 
and  that  the  remedy  lies  in  making  the  concrete  as 
dense  and  as  near  water-proof  as  possible. 

Another  difficulty  of  an  entirely  different  charac- 
ter is  where  serious  injury  was  caused  to  the  lands 
of  the  settlers  by  the  improper  handling,  inadequate 
engineering  and  faulty  construction  of  a  privately- 
owned  canal  which  had  prior  rights  over  those  of  the 
Reclamation  Service.  Investigation  showed  that  the 
Crown  Butte  Ditch  Company  secured  their  rights  by 
private  filing  on  30,000  inches  of  the  Sun  River  and 
was  supposed  to  irrigate  6,500  acres.  Their  ditch 
crossed  several  miles  of  government  land  and  they 
had  no  right  of  way.  Their  first  flume  was  poorly 
constructed  and  after  two  seasons'  use,  half  of  it 
blew  down  and  was  replaced.  Twelve  years  later 
the  company  built  a  wood-stave  pipe  to  take  the 
place  of  the  flume,  the  water  users  in  the  meantime 
having  operated  the  canal  at  their  own  expense  and 


48         KECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

without  any  payment  to  the  company.  But  now,  ow- 
ing doubtless  to  government  activity,  the  company 
was  galvanized  somewhat  into  new  life,  and  began  to 
make  improvements.  But  no  adequate  preparations 
had  been  made  for  needed  and  suitable  drainage.  In 
1907  heavy  rains  occurred.  The  company's  canal 
broke  in  several  places  and  caused  considerable  dam- 
age to  the  right  of  way  and  the  canal  of  the  Eeclama- 
tion  Service, — in  one  place  completely  washing  away 
a  rip-rap  spillway.  The  actual  cost  of  the  repairs 
caused  by  the  failure  of  the  Crown  Butte  Canal  Com- 
pany to  keep  its  canal  in  proper  condition  was  $3,- 
986.85.  It  can  well  be  seen  that  water-users  under 
the  Sun  Eiver  project  must  be  protected  from  such 
possible  losses,  and  it  was  the  work  of  the  Director, 
Project  Engineer,  and  Attorney  to  get  this  whole 
matter  in  proper  shape  before  relinquishing  control 
of  the  project. 

Private  rights  of  way  often  have  had  to  be  secured 
for  the  dams,  reservoirs,  canals,  laterals,  waste 
ditches,  etc.  These  have  also  implied  the  rights  for 
roads  in  order  that  ready  access  might  be  had  for 
maintenance  and  operation. 

The  question  of  fences,  bridges  over  canals,  fords, 
etc.,  has  been  a  most  complex  one,  for  obviously  it 
was  impossible  to  allow  indiscriminate  fencing, 
bridging  or  fording,  yet  occasionally,  and  for  tem- 
porary purposes,  these  privileges  seemed  indispen- 
sable. 

The  Service  has  also  laid  out  all  County  roads 
within  a  project  after  full  consultation  with  the 
County  officials.  Most  of  the  canals  and  waste  water 


SOME  OF  THE  DIFFICULTIES          49 

ditches  were  bridged,  so  as  to  make  all  the  projects 
available  for  rapid  settlement  and  development. 

As  soon  as  this  was  done  and  the  roads  and  bridges 
dedicated  to  public  use  the  maintenance,  improve- 
ment and  extension  of  them  was  turned  over  to  the 
regular  county  organization. 

Not  only  has  the  Service  had  to  consider  all  the 
many  and  varied  needs  of  the  living;  even  the  dead 
have  presented  problems  that  have  had  to  be  solved 
in  a  satisfactory  manner.  For  instance  in  the  Fort 
Shaw  unit  on  the  Sun  Kiver  Project  it  was  found  that 
no  reservation  for  cemetery  purposes  had  been  pro- 
vided, although  a  cemetery  had  been  maintained 
since  the  establishment  of  the  military  post, — forty 
years  before.  The  Supervising  Engineer  therefore 
recommended  that  this  actually  existent  cemetery  to 
the  extent  of  ten  acres  be  formally  set  apart  for  the 
use  of  the  settlers  of  the  Fort  Shaw  unit. 

Many  of  the  problems  would  have  been  much  sim- 
plified had  there  been  no  settlers  until  the  projects 
were  actually  completed  and  ready  to  be  turned  over 
to  them.  But  this  was  impossible  under  the  law  as 
it  then  existed.  This  law  has  since  been  radically 
changed. 

The  government  officials  have,  however,  to  a 
limited  extent,  counselled  prospective  settlers  as  pri- 
vate landowners  often  do  seeking  purchasers,  al- 
though such  counsel  has  been  largely  disregarded. 
With  the  private  capitalist  it  is  good  business  to  see 
that  every  settler  is  located  where  he  is  sure  to  be 
satisfied.  Private  capital  has  long  since  learned  that 
a  helping  hand  to  a  genuine  worker  is  often  a  real 


50         RECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

benefit.  Banks  extend  credit ;  merchants  allow  f arm- 
ers  to  get  into  debt  deeply  for  implements,  and  in 
most  cases  they  find  the  help  materially  beneficial 
and  an  incitement  to  higher  endeavour.  Private 
capital  is  generally  ready  to  advise  with  those  who 
come  to  avail  themselves  of  opportunities  afforded, 
and  guides  them  as  to  what  they  may,  or  may  not 
reasonably  attempt.  Similar  advice  has  been  given 
by  the  Eeclamation  Service  through  its  Settlement 
Section,  in  recent  years,  even  though  a  free-born 
American  citizen,  or  one  that  had  become  natural- 
ized, might  and  often  did  resent  and  disregard  it.  It 
was  unquestionably  good  business  to  tell  a  clerk,  who, 
with  his  family,  was  longing  to  leave  the  shut-up  life 
of  the  city  and  move  on  to  a  piece  of  land  in  the  arid 
West,  that  he  would  need  a  good  deal  of  money,  a 
great  amount  of  optimism,  a  tremendous  amount  of 
persistent  energy,  a  never-failing  power  for  work, 
a  courage  that  no  amount  of  disappointments  and 
failures  could  kill,  or  he  ran  the  risk  of  never  becom- 
ing a  farmer,  and  of  losing  every  cent  of  the  earnings 
of  a  life-time  that  he  was  going  to  put  into  his  ven- 
ture. 

Yet  the  question  is  still  asked,  what  concern  of  the 
Government  is  it  that  city  wives  might  break  their 
hearts  in  the  lonesomeness  of  the  new  surroundings ; 
that  the  children,  used  to  the  noise  and  bustle,  the  as- 
sociation and  perpetual  excitement,  of  the  cities, 
would  soon  be  weary  of,  and  hate,  the  steady,  mo- 
notonous, and  comparatively  lonely  life  of  the  west- 
ern farm? 

In  recent  years  the  Eeclamation  Service  has 
come  to  realize  the  great  difficulties  that  would 


SOME  OF  THE  DIFFICULTIES  51 

beset  even  the  thoughtful  who  had  fully  considered 
for  themselves,  when  the  barren  first  years  were  en- 
countered. It  is  during  the  first  five  years,  or  so, 
that  the  settler  on  new  land  needs  help  and  encour- 
agement. The  officials,  however,  thought  the  set- 
tlers should  be  able  to  pay  back  the  costs  of 
constructing  the  vast  irrigation  systems  in  ten  years, 
and  it  seemed  a  reasonable  thing  to  require  that  the 
payments  should  be  made  in  ten  equal  annual  in- 
stalments. 

But  practical  experience  demonstrated  in  a  short 
time  that,  in  many  instances,  this  was  utterly  im- 
possible. Moving  upon  the  land,  building  houses, 
barns,  stables,  however  modest  and  economical, 
bringing  one's  family,  purchasing  stock  and  needful 
tools,  seeds  and  trees  for  planting,  clearing,  levelling 
and  planting  out  the  land,  preparing  (as  had  to  be 
done  in  some  places)  the  farm  laterals,  making  roads 
to  connect  with  the  turnpikes,  and  a  thousand  and 
one  small  things,  yet,  which,  in  the  aggregate  were 
large,  completely  exhausted  the  finances  of  many 
who  thought  they  w'ere  extra-forehanded. 

Yet  the  demands  of  the  law  were  imperative.  No 
mill  of  the  gods  grinds  more  surely  than  a  rigid  legal 
system,  where  wise  judgment  is  hampered  by  legal 
restrictions.  The  result  was  that  although  extension 
of  time  was  provided  by  not  declaring  the  projects 
completed,  yet  it  was  deemed  wise  by  Congress  to 
lengthen  the  time  of  repayment  of  construction  costs 
from  ten  years  to  twenty  years.  The  first  payment 
required  upon  entry  was  made  sufficiently  large  to 
insure  good  faith  on  the  part  of  the  applicant,  and — 
then  assuming  that  the  entryman  would  expend  his 


52         EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

funds  in  improvements — during  the  next  few  years 
the  amounts  to  be  returned  to  the  Government  were 
very  small,  the  rate  being  increased  so  that  the  heav- 
ier payments  come  toward  the  end.  This  extension 
of  time  was  greatly  appreciated,  especially  by  those 
who  entered  upon  public  lands.  In  cases  of  pur- 
chases of  private  lands,  however,  the  results  have 
been  to  increase  the  price  demanded  of  the  new- 
comers because  of  the  fact  that  the  Government's 
requirements  were  lessened. 


CHAPTER  V 

AIDING  THE   SETTLEES 

What  a  mixed  flood  of  humanity  it  was  that  poured 
upon  the  arid  lands  as  soon  as  it  was  known  the  Gov- 
ernment was  going  to  spend  a  hundred  millions  and 
more  to  reclaim  them.  And  with  what  mixed  mo- 
tives they  were  animated.  Yet  all,  in  their  own  way, 
were  in  pursuit  of  happiness.  Some  didn't  want  to 
work,  nor  did  they  intend  to,  but  they  wanted  one  of 
Uncle  Sam's  farms  that  were  to  be  had  for  the  ask- 
ing. On  the  other  hand  most  of  them  were  earnest 
home-seekers,  desirous  of  bettering  their  condition 
by  being  established  on  the  land,  and  willing  to  work 
to  bring  that  desirable  aim  to  accomplishment. 
That  earnestness  of  purpose,  however,  did  not  sub- 
consciously render  them  aware  of  the  hard  work 
ahead  of  them.  Experience  is  the  great  teacher  of 
us  all,  and  in  our  processes  of  learning  we  are  in- 
clined to  become  impatient,  critical  and  fault-finding. 
But  in  spite  of  this  the  attitude  of  the  project  man- 
agers, in  the  main,  has  been  that  of  kindly  helpful- 
ness. That  was  the  spirit  of  all  the  early  day  lead- 
ers, and  well  has  it  been  passed  on  to  those  who 
lead  today.  Although  governments  advance  slowly 
in  the  direction  of  social  service,  it  is  a  source  of 
great  gratification  that  they  actually  are  advancing, 
and  this  forward  movement  has  been  aided  wonder- 
fully by  the  activities  of  the  officials  of  the  Kecla- 
mation  Service. 

53 


54         RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

As  far  as  possible,  in  the  earlier  construction,  set- 
tlers and  their  teams  were  engaged  to  help  in  the 
work.  This  did  not  always  work  out  to  the  best 
advantage,  but  the  engineers  were  instructed  to  do 
it  whenever  possible.  Sometimes  Work  was  post- 
poned to  give  the  settlers  the  opportunity  of  doing  it. 
Thus  thousands  of  dollars  on  the  various  projects 
were  put  into  circulation. 

As  early  as  possible  Demonstration  Farms  were 
urged  by  the  project  managers.  Yet  the  Service  did 
not  wish  to  take  away  from  the  respective  States  the 
responsibility  for  the  organization  and  control  of 
such  farms.  Hence  the  question  presented  difficul- 
ties which  stood  in  the  way  of  ready  and  practical 
solution.  In  some  cases,  however,,  the  Project  En- 
gineers, in  consultation  with  the  settlers  and  the 
State  authorities,  determined  to  do  what  seemed 
feasible  in  furthering  this  helpful  work.  Permission 
was  found  for  this  in  the  Reclamation  Act  which  au- 
thorizes certain  examinations  of  the  soil,  etc.,  needed 
as  an  essential  basis  of  construction  and  maintenance 
of  irrigation  works.  And  in  the  Act  of  June  30, 
1910,  making  appropriations  for  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  provision  is  made  under  paragraph 
" General  Expenses,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry," 
"for  investigations  in  connection  with  the  utilization 
of  lands  reclaimed  under  the  Reclamation  Act,  and 
other  areas  in  the  arid  and  semi-arid  region, "  and 
the  sum  of  $76,680,  is  appropriated  therefor. 

This  work  has  been  of  great  value  to  the  settlers 
and  farmers  upon  the  projects,  in  aiding  them  to 
determine  what  Was  best  to  grow,  and  how  best  to 
grow  it.  Even  in  growing  the  simplest  of  crops 


AIDING  THE  SETTLEES  55 

many  of  the  settlers  needed  instruction,  and  those 
who  were  well-informed  and  had  had  large  expe- 
rience have  been  materially  aided.  In  many  places, 
new  crops,  such  as  sugar  beets,  have  been  introduced. 

Later  an  expert  Superintendent  of  Farming  has 
been  engaged,  and  he  and  his  assistants  have  regu- 
larly visited  the  projects,  counselled  with  the  farm- 
ers, and  not  only  given  them  advice,  but  in  many  in- 
stances have  gone  on  to  their  farms  and  demon- 
strated how  things  should  be  done. 

Much  has  been  done  to  teach  farmers  how  to  irri- 
gate their  farms  properly.  Irrigation  is  a  science, 
as  well  as  an  industry,  and  those  who  have  thor- 
oughly studied  it  and  had  large  experience  have  been 
sent  out  to  demonstrate  how  water  should  be  applied 
to  the  various  crops ;  how  to  avoid  using  too  much 
water — for  too  much  is  almost  as  injurious  as  too 
little — and  how  to  secure  the  most  profitable  results. 
The  importance  of  this  phase  of  educational  and 
helpful  work  cannot  be  over-estimated. 

How  to  cope  with  pests  and  destroy  them  has 
formed  another  important  branch  of  educational 
work,  and  settlers  are  gradually  waking  up  to  the 
necessity  of  scientifically  fertilizing  their  lands. 
The  proper  use  of  barn-yard  manure;  the  relative 
values  of  commercial  fertilizers ;  the  crops  that  can 
be  "  turned-under "  for  the  nourishment  of  the  soil, 
and  matters  of  this  kind  are  constantly  presented. 

Farmer's  Institutes  are  held  where  project  man- 
agers, scientific  irrigators,  farmers,  chemists,  dairy- 
men, etc.,  meet  the  settlers  and  give  them  helpful 
instruction  upon  these  many  and  varied  lines. 

To  provoke  and  promote  co-operation,  mutual  un- 


56         KECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

derstanding  and  helpfulness,  true  solidarity  and  gre- 
gariousness,  the  community  spirit  and  pride,  have 
ever  been  aims  of  the  leaders.  * i  Get  together ' '  con- 
ferences of  all  kinds  have  been  held;  the  project 
engineers  and  managers  generally  have  sought  to 
gain  and  keep  the  good-will  of  the  settlers  and  land- 
owners by  a  furtherance  of  their  best  interests ;  vis- 
iting experts  in  irrigation,  fertilization  of  soil,  rota- 
tion of  crops,  choice,  purchase  and  care  of  stock, 
harvesting,  care  and  marketing  of  fruit,  vegetable, 
dairy  and  other  products  are  but  a  few  of  the  activ- 
ities in  this  direction. 

Nor  are  the  women  and  children  neglected.  They 
have  been  encouraged  to  form  clubs  of  every  helpful 
kind,  and  to  promote  tree-planting,  flower-growing, 
a  study  of  the  economic  value  of  the  birds  found  in 
their  localities,  how  they  might  help  in  sorting,  pre- 
paring and  packing  produce  for  market,  canning 
fruit  and  vegetables,  and  other  similar  activities. 

In  this  they  have  been  greatly  aided  by  the  sym- 
pathetic activity  of  Mrs.  Louella  Littlepage,  who 
for  many  years  has  devoted  much  of  her  time,  con- 
sistent with  other  duties  in  the  Eeclamation  Service, 
to  the  study  of  these  matters  and  has  given  advice 
not  only  by  letters  but  by  brief  and  newsy  notes  in 
the  Eeclamation  Record. 

Who  can  estimate  the  wholesome  effects  on  hun- 
dreds and  thousands  of  families,  such  endeavours 
must  produce?  Animated  by  this  spirit  of  prac- 
tical brotherhood  the  nation  has  become  the  bene- 
ficiary of  these  altruistic  efforts,  by  having  its  citi- 
zens bound  closer  together  in  more  enduring  ties. 

The  Water  Users'  Associations  of  the  various 


AIDING  THE  SETTLEES  57 

projects  are  formed  of  the  settlers,  farmers,  and 
landowners  who  claim  the  right  to  the  use  of  the 
water  provided  by  the  project,  and  who  live  on  its 
lands.  The  associations  are  formed  to  assure  the 
Government  that  the  landowners  will  apply  for  water 
from  the  irrigation  works  when  they  axe  ready  for 
service,  and  that  they  will  so  adjust  the  existing 
claims  to  the  use  of  water  that  the  administration  of 
all  the  water  available  for  the  lands  under  the  proj- 
ect, whether  supplied  from  private  or  from  gov- 
ernment irrigation  works,  shall  be  under  one  control, 
that  of  the  water  users,  themselves.  In  conformity 
with  Section  6  of  the  Eeclamation  Act,  the  manage- 
ment and  operation  of  these  irrigation  works  shall 
pass  to  the  owners  of  the  land  irrigated  thereby, 
when  the  payments  required  on  the  Construction 
Costs  are  made  for  the  major  portion  of  the  lands  ir- 
rigated from  the  waters  of  any  of  the  works  thus  pro- 
vided. While  the  Water  Users 9  Associations  now  es- 
tablished cannot  be  recognized  by  the  Secretary  of 
the  Interior  as  the  corporation  contemplated  by  Sec- 
tion 6  of  the  Eeclamation  Act,  because  the  time  fixed 
by  law  for  the  turning  over  of  the  irrigation  systems 
has  not  arrived,  yet  they  are  being  prepared  for  the 
duties  of  management  and  operation  of  these  irriga- 
tion works,  since  their  form  of  organization  is  made 
with  this  end  in  view.  Under  the  Eeclamation  Ex- 
tension Act  the  Water  Users'  Associations  may  be 
designated  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  as  fiscal 
agents  to  collect  the  building  and  annual  operation 
and  maintenance  charges  on  each  project.  Each 
share  in  the  Association  represents  the  water  right 
for  one  acre  of  land;  and  necessarily  each  share- 


58         RECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST. 

holder  must  be  a  homesteader  or  owner  of  land  re- 
ceiving water  from  the  irrigation  works.  Such  stock 
of  water-right  becomes  part  of  and  attaches  to  the 
land,  and  can  be  conveyed  only  by  conveying  title  to 
the  land.  Each  homesteader  or  owner  of  land  receiv- 
ing water  from  the  canal  is  obliged  to  subscribe  for 
as  many  shares  in  the  Association  as  he  has  acres  of 
irrigable  land,  limited,  however,  to  a  total  of  160 
shares.  He  must  also  be  a  resident  upon  the  land  or 
live  within  the  neighbourhood  thereof  (within  fifty 
miles),  and  if  an  entryman  upon  a  homestead,  he 
must  comply  with  the  provisions  of  the  homestead 
laws.  Those  owning  more  than  160  acres  of  land 
receiving  water  from  the  government  canals  are  pro- 
hibited from  purchasing  a  water-right  for  an 
acreage  in  excess  of  this  amount.  For  the  pro- 
tection of  such  owners,  it  has  been  arranged  for 
the  Association  to  hold  in  trust  the  amount  of  land 
which  they  own  in  excess  of  160  acres  until  it  can  be 
conveniently  sold  as  directed  by  the  Secretary  of 
the  Interior,  or  requested  by  the  owners  themselves. 
The  Association  further  assumes  all  the  duties  of 
levying  and  collecting  the  charges  against  the  land 
and  of  making  suitable  contracts  with  the  water 
users,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  tho 
Interior. 

In  some  cases  the  "Water  Users'  Associations  have 
not  taken  much  active  interest  in  the  work  of  their 
respective  projects.  This  seems  to  be  poor  policy. 
Though  the  Eeclamation  Service  officials  and  engi- 
neers are  now  controlling  the  maintenance  and  oper- 
ation of  the  plants,  it  is  certain  that  they  cannot  al- 
ways continue  to  do  so.  When  the  time  comes  this 


AIDING  THE  SETTLEES  59 

work  will  devolve,  perforce,  upon  the  actual  owners 
of  the  land  and  the  works.  Should  they  not,  there- 
fore, as  early  as  possible  avail  themselves  of  the 
scientific  and  practical  knowledge  of  the  project 
managers,  so  that  when  the  systems  come  under  their 
control  they  may  know  how  to  run  them  in  the  most 
intelligent  and  profitable  fashion? 

Elsewhere  I  have  spoken  of  the  development  of 
electricity  upon  the  projects,  that  already  accom- 
plished, and  that  made  possible  in  the  future.  It  is 
beyond  the  ken  of  man  to  approximately  conceive 
what  this  will  mean  to  the  farmers  and  their  families 
when  it  is  utilized  to  the  full.  There  will  be  electri- 
city and  to  spare  for  lighting,  cooking,  and  heating. 
Fans,  sewing-machines,  churns,  sawing-machines, 
lathes,  grindstones,  pumps,  and  a  thousand  and  one 
labour-saving  devices  will  be  in  operation  wherever 
the  electricity  is  forthcoming.  Thus  much  of  .the 
drudgery  of  farm-life  will  disappear;  our  boys  and 
girls  will  not  flee  from  the  farms  because  of  their 
burdensome  labour  and  tedious  monotony.  With 
electrically-propelled  vehicles  (by  no  means  a  remote 
possibility),  they  will  be  able  to  visit  each  other, 
riding  over  the  finest  kind  of  scientifically  con- 
structed roads,  and  when  night  time  comes,  they  may 
meet  in  common  assembly  halls  where  moving  pic- 
tures, stereopticon  lectures,  concerts,  entertain- 
ments, dances,  and  the  like  will  satisfy  the  grega- 
rious instinct  that  seems  to  be  implanted  in  every  hu- 
man breast. 

Let  me  caution  the  reader,  however,  against  sup- 
posing that  the  aim  and  work  of  the  Eeclamation 
Service  clears  away  all  difficulties  and  discourage- 


60         EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

ments  from  the  path  of  the  settler.  There  are  many 
obstacles  in  life  that  no  man  or  body  of  men  can 
foresee,  prevent  or  obviate.  In  reading  the  project 
histories  I  find  accounts  of  killing  frosts,  unexpected 
floods,  caused  by  sudden  and  unexpected  rains, 
cloud-bursts,  or  melting  of  the  snows,  wind- 
storms, grasshopper  pests  and  other  misfortunes 
that  act  as  set-backs  and  often  cause  serious  dis- 
couragement. 

These,  however,  are  the  acts  of  what  we  call  Na- 
ture, and  all  men  must  bow  to  them,  make  the  best  of 
them,  triumph  over  them,  or  succumb  and  go  under. 
|There  is  no  other  way.  The  Eeclamation  Service 
plans  and  purposes  to  help  as  far  as  it  may  and  can ; 
the  Weather  Bureau  adds  its  knowledge  of  climatic 
conditions  to  give  advance  information  and  warning 
that  will  provide  added  security  to  the  farmer,  stock- 
man and  fruit-grower,  but  no  man  must  expect  that 
his  life  will  be  free  from  all  burdens,  set-backs,  re- 
sponsibilities and  struggles.  The  life  to  be  desired, 
however,  is  that  which  avoids  and  is  free  from  all 
preventable  annoyances  and  difficulties — and  this  the 
Service  seeks  to  promote  in  every  way — and  then, 
whatever  else  comes,  let  each  man  rise  in  his  own 
divine  might,  and,  by  the  power  of  his  unconquerable 
soul,  triumph  in  spite  of  all  that  may  seem  to  be 
against  him. 

Far  more  difficult  than  the  battles  with  Nature  are 
those  in  which  the  patriotic  settlers  must  join  with 
the  Eeclamation  Service  in  contending  for  high  moral 
standards.  In  my  book  on  the  Heroes  of  California 
I  have  told  of  the  magnificent  fight  and  splendid  spir- 
itual victory  won  by  Major  John  Wesley  Powell  over 


AIDING  THE  SETTLERS  61 

the  politicians  and  speculators.  It  is  to  be  by  no 
means  assumed  that  these  men  have  quietly  accepted 
defeat.  On  the  contrary  they  and  their  kind  are 
always  with  us  and  when  beaten  in  the  open  retire  to 
ambush.  The  same  kind  of  battles  are  to  be  fought 
in  different  ways ;  all  along  the  line  eternal  vigilance 
and  resistance  to  wrong  is  the  price  to  be  paid  for 
continued  high  principle. 

It  is  no  longer  a  question  as  to  whether  or  not  the 
public  lands  should  pass  directly  into  the  control  of 
the  speculators.  That  contest  has  been  settled  by  the 
United  States  taking  charge  of  the  reclamation  of  its 
lands  and  by  offering  inducements  for  the  subdivi- 
sion of  the  privately  owned  lands  and  the  putting  of 
these  into  the  hands  of  actual  settlers.  It  has  ad- 
vanced the  money  on  the  assurance  that  this  will  be 
returned  to  be  used  over  again  to  reclaim  other  lands 
and  benefit  other  settlers.  To  secure  this  return  it 
has  sought  many  safeguards,  but  these  can  not  be 
fully  effective  unless  supported  by  a  high  moral  stand 
on  the  part  of  the  public,  and  especially  of  the  men 
who  have  been  benefited  and  who  should  be  willing  to 
do  their  part  in  permitting  others  to  share  in  similar 
benefits. 

Here  is  where  the  petty  politician  and  speculator 
in  lands  sees  his  opportunity.  While  he  would  not 
risk  his  chances  of  raising  a  storm  of  general  protest 
by  urging  direct  repudiation  of  the  amount  owed  the 
Government  yet  he  has  seen  that  he  can  secure  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  popular  approval  by  more  cunningly 
devised  schemes  such  as  will  defer  the  repayment  and 
secure  to  the  men  who  are  trying  to  sell  land  an  ex- 
tension of  time  by  means  of  which  they  can  increase 


62          BECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

their  prices  and  secure  for  themselves  unearned  in- 
crement of  value  of  the  land. 

This  is  easy  to  do.  There  are  plenty  of  instances 
of  real  hardship,  of  misfits  on  the  farms,  such  as  nec- 
essarily occur  when  a  large  miscellaneous  population 
drifts  into  a  new  country.  While  the  majority  may 
be  fairly  prosperous  there  is  always  a  minority  who 
must  necessarily  fail.  Among  these  are  a  few  who 
would  be  far  better  off  in  some  other  occupation.  By 
exploiting  the  disappointments  of  these  people  and 
by  encouraging  complaints  from  the  ne  'er-do-well,  it 
is  easy  at  any  time  to  raise  a  great  volume  of  sound. 
While  most  of  the  farmers  are  busy  in  their  fields 
earning  the  necessary  money  to  pay  their  debts,  a 
vociferous  crowd  of  idlers  may  assemble  in  towns 
and  clamour  for  relief. 

Moreover,  it  is  always  very  easy  to  demoralize  a 
community  by  free  gifts,  whether  it  be  of  seed,  of  lit- 
erature, or  of  public  buildings.  Once  inoculated  with 
the  germ  the  unthinking  crowd  cries  for  more.  The 
conception  that  some  one  must  pay  for  these  gifts, 
and  that  true  citizenship  demands  that  the  benefi- 
ciary do  his  part,  is  kept  in  the  background. 

The  great  contest  demanding  far  stronger  moral 
fibre  than  that  needed  in  battles  with  Nature  is  now 
being  waged  by  the  strong  men  of  the  Eeclamation 
Service  aided  by  the  larger  minded  citizens  on  each 
project — in  trying  to  keep  down  this  popular  wave  of 
repudiation  and  to  expose  the  insidious  forces  work- 
ing through  a  community.  It  is  so  easy  for  some  one 
speculator,  or  politician,  to  start  the  cry  that  "we  are 
willing  to  pay  a  proper  cost  for  the  works  "  and  then 
show  that  this  portion,  or  that  portion,  was  not  abso- 


AIDING  THE  SETTLEES  63 

lutely  necessary,  or  to  allege  extravagance.  The  en- 
gineers who  have  devoted  the  best  part  of  their  lives 
to  this  work  and  who  may  have  achieved  notahle 
results  in  economy  and  efficiency,  are  no  longer  in 
sight,  or  can  not  defend  themselves  from  attack. 
Even  if  extravagance  cannot  be  proved,  yet  as  before 
stated,  there  are  plenty  of  cases  of  misfortune  among 
the  irrigators,  and  because  of  one  or  two  of  these 
pitiable  instances  an  indefinite  extension  and  ulti- 
mate reduction  of  cost  is  demanded. 

While  no  right  thinking  man  desires  to  oppress 
any  individual  and  while  each  is  willing  to  recom- 
mend an  indefinite  extension  in  deserving  cases  yet 
there  is  no  proper  excuse  for  using  these  few  cases 
as  a  reason  for  action  which  will  prevent  those  irri- 
gators who  can  do  so  from  making  payment  and  re- 
turning to  the  Government  the  money  which  has  been 
used  for  them  and  which  in  turn  should  be  beneficially 
employed  for  others  equally  deserving.  The  general 
public,  however,  who  might  be  benefited,  has  no  im- 
mediate representative  in  this  matter,  other  than  the 
conscientious  officers  of  the  Reclamation  Service. 
These  inheriting  the  spirit  and  vision  of  Major  Pow- 
ell must  each  fight  out  the  same  old  question  as  to 
whether  he  will  take  the  easy  course  and  win  imme- 
diate applause  or  tread  alone  the  difficult  path 
pointed  out  by  their  great  guiding  predecessor. 

We  may  confidently  predict,  in  the  long  run,  a  vic- 
tory and  the  overcoming  of  the  forces  which  are  con- 
tinually at  work  nibbling  away  the  reclamation  fund. 
Assuming  that  it  can  be  preserved  in  its  integrity  and 
used  again  and  again  we  may  look  forward  to  the 
building  of  other  large  projects  and  of  still  wider  aid 


64         RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

to  deserving  settlers.  There  are  innumerable  oppor- 
tunities and  instances  even  greater  than  those  de- 
scribed in  this  book.  The  vision  of  great  usefulness 
still  inspires  the  men  who  have  consecrated  their 
lives  to  this  great  mission.  They  need  and  deserve 
the  whole-hearted  support  of  every  one,  in  their  fight 
for  the  maintenance  of  clean  administration  and  of 
high  but  practicable  principles. 


CHAPTER  VI 

IN   THE   LAND  OF   THE   GIANT   SAHUAKO.      THE   SALT 
RIVER  PROJECT,   ARIZONA 

This  was  one  of  the  first  projects  upon  which 
work  was  actually  begun  after  the  passage  of  the 
Eeclamation  Act.  It  is  one  of  the  largest,  as  far  as 
acreage  to  be  reclaimed  is  concerned;  it  is  the  most 
spectacular,  perhaps,  of  all  the  works  of  the  Eeclam- 
ation Service,  owing  to  the  location  of  the  great 
Eoosevelt  Dam  in  the  wild,  rugged  and  picturesque 
Salt  Eiver  Canyon;  it  is  the  best  known,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  its  storage  dam,  with  the  consequent 
reservoir,  and  the  adjacent  town  all  bear  the  name 
of  the  president  who  signed  the  Eeclamation  Act ;  it 
is  the  most  romantic  in  its  environment,  as  it 
is  located  on  the  famous  "Apache  Trail"  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  country  made  memorable  as  the  secret 
haunt  of  those  scourges  of  the  white  race,  the  warlike 
Apaches. 

Possibly  nowhere  in  the  world  are  the  advantages 
of  governmental  works  of  irrigation  on  a  large  scale 
so  evident  as  in  the  Salt  Eiver  Valley.  For  years 
casual  travellers  had  reported  the  existence  of  an- 
cient irrigation  canals,  and  in  the  seventies  and  eight- 
ies Lieutenant  Frank  H.  Gushing,  of  the  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnology,  asserted  that  these  canal  ruins, 
with  the  Casa  Grande  ruins,  and  other  remnants  of 
cities  or  communities,  demonstrated  the  fact  that  at 
one  time  a  vast  sedentary  and  agricultural  popula- 

65 


66         RECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

tion  occupied  a  large  part  of  the  Salt  and  Gila  River 
Valleys. 

It  was  later  found  that  at  least  eleven  main  canals 
existed,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  135  miles  have 
been  actually  traced,  which  were  capable  of  watering 
upwards  of  100,000  acres  of  land.  It  may  be  said 
in  passing,  that  it  was  these  prehistoric  canals  and 
cities  that  gave  the  name  to  Phoenix — a  city  rising 
out  of  the  ashes  of  its  forgotten  past — later  to  be  the 
capital  and  metropolis  of  the  State,  and  the  com- 
mercial centre  of  one  of  the  most  productive  valleys 
of  the  world. 

In  due  time  careful  investigation  by  agricultural 
experts  confirmed  the  judgment  of  the  pioneer  lo- 
caters,  that  the  soil  of  this  valley  was  admirably 
adapted  for  the  growth  of  every  kind  of  tree,  plant, 
fruit  or  vegetable  that  was  found  in  any  country  of 
earth  except  those  that  were  purely  tropical,  and 
the  climate  was  ideal  for  rapid  and  perfect  growth. 
The  natural  result  was  that,  as  soon  as  the  mines 
began  to  be  actively  worked,  prospective  farmers  lo- 
cated in  the  Salt  Eiver  Valley,  tapped  the  Salt  River 
with  canals,  and  commenced  operations.  The  first 
canal  was  known  as  the  Swilling  Ditch,  from  Jack 
Swilling,  one  of  the  pioneers  who  had  been  a  Texas 
Ranger,  and  came  to  Arizona  in  the  early  sixties,  with 
the  Walker  party  that  found  placer  gold  near  Pres- 
cott.  Visiting  John  Y.  T.  Smith  at  Fort  McDowell, 
he  there  saw  the  agricultural  possibilities  of  the 
valley  and  organized  a  company  at  Wickenburg. 
From  this  little  nucleus  has  grown  the  Phoenix  of 
today. 

A  part  of  Swilling 's  ditch  later  became  known  as 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  GIANT  SAHUAEO     67 

the  Salt  River  Valley  Canal,  and  another  as  the  Mari- 
copa  Canal.  From  1870  to  1894  various  other  canals 
were  built,  the  principal  ones  on  the  north  side  being 
the  Grand  and  the  Arizona,  the  Cross-Cut  connecting 
these  two.  On  the  south  side  were  the  Tempe,  San 
Francisco  or  Wormser,  Utah,  Mesa,  Consolidated, 
and  Highline. 

The  diversion  for  the  Arizona  Canal  was  made  by 
means  of  a  timber-crib  rock-filled  dam  covered  with 
heavy  planking.  The  other  dams  on  the  river  were 
temporary  affairs  of  brush  and  rock,  that  were  usu- 
ally swept  away  more  or  less  completely  by  the 
periodic  floods  that  occur  in  the  river  with  great  cer- 
tainty. After  the  floods  these  dams  could  not  be 
repaired  until  the  river  had  reached  a  comparatively 
low  stage,  with  little  water  available  for  irrigation, 
and  as  a  result,  the  valley  was  generally  in  a  state  of 
water  famine. 

The  outcome  of  this  condition  can  be  conceived 
only  by  those  familiar  with  the  imperative  need  for 
water  in  the  hot  weather.  Given  the  water,  growths 
seem  miraculous ;  without  it,  the  destruction  and  re- 
version to  desert  is  equally  miraculous  in  its  speedy 
operation.  The  irritation,  desperation,  and  despair 
of  men  who  saw  themselves  ruined  by  a  shortage  of 
water  led  to  innumerable  quarrels,  for  careful  ob- 
servers were  convinced,  as  early  as  1854^5,  that  the 
farmers  could  not  rely  upon  more  than  the  low-water 
flow  of  the  river,  and  that  even  this  was  jeopardized 
by  the  shortage  that  invariably  followed  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  dams  during  flood-times.  During  the 
period  from  1890  to  1899  the  shortage  of  water  was 
very  pronounced,  and  some  of  the  cultivated  land 


68         EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

reverted  to  desert.  These  things  naturally  retarded 
the  development  of  the  Salt  Eiver  Valley,  and  led  its 
citizens  to  cast  about  for  means  to  remedy  the  evils. 
Litigation,  which  seemed  without  end,  clogged  the 
courts,  feuds  were  started,  some  of  which  came  near 
to  being  deadly,  while  the  sane  and  sensible  conferred 
with  each  other  and  determined  that  there  was  but 
one  basic  solution  to  the  problem.  This  was  more 
water,  and  more  constant  or  steadily -flowing  water. 
This  implied  the  creation  of  a  storage  reservoir  of 
sufficient  capacity  to  supply  all  needs  throughout 
the  agricultural  year,  and  the  organization  of  a  sys- 
tem of  distribution  that  should  eliminate  all  local 
quarrels,  be  uniform  and  equitable  to  all  concerned. 
To  accomplish  these  desirable  and  essential  results, 
however,  implied  an  expenditure  too  vast  for  private 
capital.  The  County  and  Territorial  governments 
were  called  upon — for  Arizona  was  not  yet  raised  to 
the  dignity  of  statehood — and  reconnaissance  exam- 
inations and  surveys  were  made. 

In  the  meantime  the  perpetual  litigation  was  more 
and  more  emphasizing  the  need,  the  absolute  neces- 
sity, for  pulling  together  and  eliminating  the  expen- 
sive, irritating,  and  generally  useless  "la wing."  In 
1900  the  citizens  of  Phoenix  organized  a  water-stor- 
age committee  for  "promoting  investigations  and 
developing  some  project  for  the  storage  of  water." 
Major  Powell's  known  sympathies  were  called  upon 
for  aid,  and  in  1901,  Mr.  Arthur  P.  Davis,  now  Di- 
rector and  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Service,  made  fur- 
ther investigations  of  a  most  rigid  and  scientific 
character. 

In  June,  1902,  the  Eeclamation  Service  came  into 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  GIANT  SAHUAEO    69 

existence.  Everything  was  ripe  in  the  Salt  Eiver 
Valley  for  its  taking  the  loose  threads  of  many  canal 
corporations,  and  private  individuals,  which  were 
never  in  any  other  than  a  snarled  and  tangled  condi- 
tion, smooth  them  out,  put  in  the  necessary  storage 
system,  an  effective  and  economical  distribution  sys- 
tem, and  thus  put  an  end  to  the  irritating  causes  that 
had  retarded  the  development  of  the  country.  At 
the  same  time  the  Eeclamation  Service  could  test  its 
worth,  prove  its  mettle  as  it  were,  by  constructing  a 
model  plant  which  would  make  possible  the  irriga- 
tion of  many  thousands  more  of  acres,  and  therefore 
attract  a  large  influx  of  new  settlers  to  this  divinely- 
blessed  land. 

Coincidently  Mr.  George  H.  Maxwell,  immediately 
upon  the  conclusion  of  his  long  and  successful  cam- 
paign in  the  aid  of  Mr.  Newlands  and  the  President 
in  getting  the  Eeclamation  Act  passed,  began  system- 
atically to  initiate  work  to  smooth  conditions  in  the 
Salt  Eiver  Valley.  As  an  experienced  lawyer  he  saw 
the  legal  difficulties  and  appreciated  that  nothing 
could  be  done  without  the  active  help  of  all  concerned. 
He  put  his  splendid  energy  at  the  disposal  of  the 
Water  Users'  Association,  backing  up  the  efforts  of 
its  President,  Mr.  B.  A.  Fowler.  They  and  innumer- 
able assistants  started  in  on  a  long  and  difficult  cam- 
paign to  win  over  and  adjust  the  private  interests. 
To  record  how  this  was  done  and  to  narrate  the 
schemes,  the  diplomatic  victories  and  to  properly 
characterize  the  tact,  skill  and  judgment  combined 
with  practical  wisdom  that  were  brought  into  exer- 
cise would  require  a  book  larger  than  this  and  be 
perhaps  even  more  interesting. 


70         EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

The  Eeclamation  Service  eagerly  undertook  the 
arduous  task.  The  preliminary  work  already  re- 
ferred to  had  satisfied  the  engineers  who  were  now 
at  the  helm  in  the  newly  organized  service  (to  which 
they  had  been  transferred),  that  a  storage  dam 
should  be  constructed  on  the  Salt  Kiver  at  a  natural 
site  near  the  mouth  of  Tonto  Creek,  which  should 
yield  water  for  the  irrigation  of  all  the  privately- 
ow'ned  lands  of  the  valley,  and  that  electricity  should 
be  generated  at  the  reservoir  for  the  pumping  of 
water  from  wells.  This  plan  was  recommended  to 
the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  with  the  further  pro- 
viso that  negotiations  be  initiated  with  the  owners 
of  existing  canals,  and  of  the  land,  to  the  end  that 
every  conflicting  interest  could  be  merged  into  one 
harmonious  and  successful  whole. 

In  March,  1903,  the  Secretary  approved  the  plans, 
and  in  the  same  month  the  Salt  Eiver  Valley  Water 
Users'  Association  was  organized,  whose  articles  of 
incorporation  were  also  approved,  and  with  whom  a 
contract  was  signed  by  the  Secretary  in  February, 
1904. 

Now  the  reader  is  ready  for  a  few  facts  about  the 
water  conditions  and  the  work  to  be  done.  The  proj- 
ect is  located  in  Maricopa  and  Gila  counties.  The 
sources  of  water  supply  are  the  Salt  and  Verde  riv- 
ers, and  wells  in  the  Salt  Eiver  Valley.  The  area 
of  the  Salt  Eiver  drainage  basin  is  6,260  square  miles, 
and  that  of  the  Verde,  6,000  square  miles.  The  an- 
nual rainfall  on  the  irrigable  area  is  seven  inches, 
while  the  annual  run-off  of  the  Salt  Eiver,  (at  Eoose- 
velt, *  with  a  drainage  there  of  5,760  square  miles) 

i  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  from  1889  to  1914  the  maximum  run- 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  GIANT  SAHUAEO    71 

from  1888  to  1907  was,  maximum,  3,260,000  acre-feet; 
minimum,  154,000,  or  a  mean  of  804,000;  while  the 
Verde  Eiver  at  McDowell,  from  1888  to  1908,  gave  a 
maximum  of  1,858,000 ;  minimum,  117,000 ;  or  a  mean 
of  586,000  acre-feet.  This  gave  a  mean  of  the  two 
streams  of  1,390,000  acre-feet,  per  annum. 

The  plan,  however,  contemplated  the  erection  of 
only  one  storage  dam,  that  at  Koosevelt.  Here  the 
site  was  chosen  by  Nature.  A  very  short  distance 
below  where  Tonto  Creek  flows  into  the  Salt  Eiver 
from  the  north  the  latter  pours  through  a  narrow 
gorge  into  the  canyon  of  the  Salt  Eiver.  It  is  a  wild, 
rugged  and  picturesque  spot,  and  when  the  river  was 
at  flood,  the  Tonto- Apaches,  of  the  old  days — who 
were  the  aboriginal  residents  of  the  whole  surround- 
ing country — were  treated  to  a  scene  of  turbulent 
waters  almost  as  grand  and  awe-inspiring  as  their 
aboriginal  brothers  in  the  North  were  in  the  habit  of 
witnessing  in  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado 
Eiver.  To  create  a  dam  here  of  sufficient  power  to 
stop  and  tame  the  Salt  Eiver,  especially  at  flood-time, 
meant  a  gigantic  piece  of  solid  engineering.  As  com- 
pleted it  is  280  feet  high,  1125  feet  long,  with  an 
automobile  road  across  the  top,  sixteen  feet  in  width. 
There  are  342,325  cubic  yards  of  masonry  in  the 
structure.  To  build  such  a  massive  dam  would  have 
been  regarded  as  a  great  work,  in  the  heart  of  a  city, 
close  to  quarries  and  with  every  method  of  trans- 
portation readily  available.  But  to  accomplish  such 
a  task  in  the  heart  of  a  desolate,  mountainous  coun- 

off  at  Roosevelt  was  3,226,470;  minimum,  153,394,  with  a  mean  of 
772,052  acre-feet;  and  of  the  Verde  for  the  same  period,  maximum, 
1,801,500;  minimum,  116,679;  mean,  562,065  acre-feet. 


72         EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

try,  seemed  almost  impossible.  The  site  of  the  dam 
is  about  forty  miles  from  Globe  on  the  east,  and 
about  sixty  miles  from  Mesa,  on  the  west,  the  latter 
being  the  nearest  railroad  station  in  the  Salt  River 
Valley.  There  was  no  road  from  either  point  to  the 
dam.  Eailroad  rates  to  Globe  were  very  much 
higher  than  those  to  Mesa,  and  after  careful  investi- 
gation it  was  decided  to  build  a  wagon  road  from 
Mesa  to  Eoosevelt,  over  which  necessary  supplies  and 
materials  for  building  the  dam  could  be  transported. 
The  cities  of  Mesa  and  Phoenix  contributed  by  a  bond 
issue  about  $70,000  towards  the  construction  of  this 
road. 

It  is  one  of  the  romances  connected  with  this  high- 
way that  many  miles  of  it  were  built  by  the  Apache 
Indians,  and  that  they  were  found  to  be  such  re- 
liable workmen  that  they  were  sent  out  in  squads,  or 
bands,  without  any  white  boss  or  time-keeper  than 
their  own  inherent  sense  of  honour.  This  sixty  miles 
of  road  is  now  a  part  of  the  world-famed  "Apache 
Trail,"  over  which  thousands  of  American  and  other 
travellers  are  being  conveyed  annually  to  their  in- 
tense delight. 

At  the  inception  of  the  project  bids  were  obtained 
from  the  leading  manufacturers  of  cement  for  200,- 
000  barrels — the  amount  that  it  was  estimated  would 
be  required.  These  bids  showed  that  the  cement 
would  cost  heavily  at  Globe,  and  that  this  cost  would 
be  so  much  increased  by  hauling  to  Eoosevelt  that 
the  price  Would  be  $9.00  per  barrel.  This  price  was 
prohibitive,  as  it  added  practically  $1,100,000  to  the 
cost  of  the  project.  The  engineers,  therefore,  began 
to  look  around  for  a  way  out  of  the  difficulty.  They 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  GIANT  SAHUAEO     73 

found  on  the  mountains  above  the  dam  site  a  large 
limestone  ledge,  and  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  an 
ample  supply  of  blue  clay,  both  of  which  are  neces- 
sary to  the  manufacture  of  a  high  grade  of  Portland 
cement.  The  Service  thereupon  announced  that  it 
would  erect  a  cement  mill  and  make  its  own  cement. 
This  called  forth  a  vigorous  protest  from  the  manu- 
facturers, who  requested  that  another  opportunity  be 
given  them  to  offer  bids,  which  was  done,  and  the 
price  was  then  made  of  $4.70  per  barrel,  delivered  at 
Eoosevelt.  As  careful  tests,  however,  demonstrated 
that  the  Service  could  manufacture  the  cement  on  the 
spot  for  $2.20  per  barrel,  including  the  cost  of  oper- 
ating the  plant,  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  rejected 
all  bids  and  authorized  the  erection  of  the  mill.  This 
was  done  at  a  cost  of  about  $123,000  and  it  worked 
daily,  turning  out  about  400  barrels  per  day,  until 
the  work  on  the  project  was  completed.  Between 
twenty  and  thirty  thousand  barrels  were  also  hauled 
from  Eoosevelt  to  Granite  Eeef,  near  Mesa,  for  use 
in  the  construction  of  the  diversion  dam  that  was 
simultaneously  being  built  there.  The  small  cost, 
too,  led  to  the  use  of  some  20,000  barrels  more  of 
cement  in  the  Eoosevelt  Dam  than  otherwise  would 
have  been  used,  naturally  strengthening  its  con- 
struction and  rendering  it  far  more  durable. 

Economy  had  to  be  practised  in  every  way,  as  the 
whole  country — Congress  included — was  watching 
operations  with  interest,  and  upon  the  economy  or 
extravagance  shown  in  this  great  work  the  Eeclama- 
tion  Service  would  be  judged.  A  vast  amount  of 
lumber  was  needed.  A  fine  pine  forest  was  found  in 
the  Sierra  Ancha  Mountains,  some  4,000  feet  higher 


74         EECLAIMING  THE  ABID  WEST 

than  tlie  river.  A  small  mill  of  the  portable  type 
was  purchased  which  sawed  some  three  million  feet 
of  lumber.  This  was  hauled  over  a  wagon  road,  es- 
pecially built,  to  the  various  locations  along  the  canal 
where  it  was  needed.  Some  $15.00  per  thousand 
feet  was  saved  by  sawing  this  lumber  in  the  moun- 
tains, even  after  taking  into  account  and  charging  to 
the  lumber,  the  entire  cost  of  the  road  and  sawmill, 
less  the  small  sum  for  which  the  sawmill  was  sold 
later. 

In  placing  the  giant  rocks  in  the  dam,  and  for  the 
conveyance  of  the  thousands  of  tons  of  concrete  re- 
quired in  the  structure,  a  large  amount  of  power  was 
needed.  How  to  secure  this  cheaply  was  a  grave 
question.  It  was  decided  to  bring  in  water  a  dis- 
tance of  thirteen  miles  in  a  canal,  to  be  used  for  the 
generation  of  electric  power.  While  this  canal  was 
being  completed,  it  was  necessary  to  run  a  steam 
engine  to  manufacture  cement  for  local  use,  and  to  do 
a  number  of  other  things  required  in  any  camp  where 
construction  work  is  going  on.  Although  it  was  but 
a  relatively  small  plant,  it  required  a  pile  of  wood 
four  feet  high,  four  feet  wide,  and  from  a  mile  and  a 
quarter  to  a  mile  and  a  half  long  every  month,  and 
nearly  all  this  wood  had  to  be  packed  on  burros' 
backs  from  one  to  ten  miles.  It  was  not  only  diffi- 
cult to  get  the  wood,  but  it  was  becoming  pretty  ex- 
pensive by  the  time  they  were  able  to  turn  the  water 
from  the  power-canal  through  the  water-wheels. 

This  power-canal  generated  all  the  electricity  re- 
quired by  the  contractors  for  power  during  the  con- 
struction of  the  dam,  and  the  low  price  they  bid  for 
their  work  was  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Eeclamation 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  GIANT  SAHUAEO    75 

Service  charged  only  half  a  cent  per  horse-power 
hour  up  to  400  H.  P.,  and  above  that  one  cent  per 
horse-power  hour.  This  cost  was  about  one-eighth 
to  one-tenth  of  what  the  contractors  would  have  been 
out  had  they  hauled  oil  from  Mesa,  or  cut  and  hauled 
wood  for  the  generation  of  power  from  the  rapidly 
diminishing  supply  near  the  dam. 

A  large  number  of  teams  were  required  to  do  the 
needed  work,  haul  supplies,  etc.  To  keep  them  busy 
all  the  time  required  careful  planning.  This  was 
accomplished  as  follows.  There  were  several  farms 
in  the  valley,  occupying  the  reservoir  site,  which 
had  to  be  purchased,  as  they  would  be  flooded  as  soon 
as  the  dam  was  completed,  and  storage  of  water  be- 
gan. When  teams  were  not  otherwise  engaged  they 
were  set  to  work  on  these  farms,  and  in  the  first  year 
of  operation,  they  showed  a  net  profit  of  about 
$9,000. 

As  I  have  before  explained,  the  Tonto  Basin,  which 
is  flooded  by  the  Eoosevelt  Keservoir,  was  once  the 
home  of  the  Tonto  Apaches.  Large  numbers  of 
these  Indians  were  used  on  the  preliminary  work 
and  during  the  entire  construction  of  the  dam.  In 
answer  to  my  queries  on  the  work  of  the  Indians  Mr. 
Louis  C.  Hill,  the  Supervising  Engineer,  sent  me  the 
following  interesting  particulars : 

When  we  first  began  to  hire  these  Indians  they  were  a 
wild-looking  lot  and  had  to  be  treated  very  differently  from 
the  ordinary  whites  available.  "Within  a  short  time,  how- 
ever, they  dressed  very  much  as  the  white  or  Mexican 
labourer.  About  the  only  difference  that  could  be  noticed 
between  the  Apache  Indian  and  the  white  man  or  Mexican, 
was  that  the  clothes  worn  by  the  Indian  showed  the  result 
of  frequent  washing,  while  the  clothes  used  by  the  hobo 


76         EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

white  men  and  Mexicans  had  no  such  marks.  At  first, 
many  of  the  foremen  were  prejudiced  against  Indian 
labour,  and  I  remember  during  the  early  part  of  1905,  when 
the  floods  in  the  river  had  prevented  some  of  the  work 
going  on,  a  large  number  of  Indians  were  thrown  out  of 
employment.  Just  at  this  time  an  equally  large  number 
of  White  Mountain  Apaches  came  down  to  the  dam,  prob- 
ably driven  out  of  their  homes  by  the  hard  times,  the  result 
of  the  years  of  drought  preceding  the  big  floods  of  1905. 
A  conference  was  held  with  their  chiefs,  at  which  many  of 
the  Indians  and  their  families  were  present.  The  only 
thing  for  which  the  Indians  asked  was  the  opportunity  to 
work,  although  I  knew  that  a  number  of  them  were  suffer- 
ing from  lack  of  food,  and  that  the  whole  tribe  was  living 
largely  on  rats,  mice,  and  the  small  game  that  could  be 
found  in  the  neighbourhood.  After  the  conference  had 
progressed  a  little  while,  one  chief  of  the  Tonto  Apaches, 
Yesterday,  by  name,  gave  a  very  impressive  talk  lasting 
for  two  or  three  minutes.  The  interpreter  translated  it  as 
follows : 

1  'He  says  that  when  he  was  young,  General  Crook  came 
into  the  country  and  took  the  Indians  all  away  from  the 
Tonto  basin  and  took  them  to  San  Carlos  and  put  them  on  a 
reservation  there.  Now  they  had  been  permitted  to  come 
back  to  the  country  that  had  once  been  theirs,  and  they 
thought  that  if  there  was  work  they  ought  to  be  given  a 
first  chance  at  it,  rather  than  to  give  the  work  to  the 
Mexican  and  to  the  hobo  white. " 

I  told  him  that  I  thought  his  contention  was  a  good  one 
and  he  certainly  should  have  work,  along  with  all  of  his 
people  who  needed  it,  and  were  willing  to  work.  We  used 
the  Apaches  in  the  construction  of  roads  and  on  all  kinds 
of  work,  and  I  do  not  know  of  any  better  class  of  workmen 
or  unskilled  labourers  than  these  Apaches  proved  to  be. 
They  were  especially  valuable  to  us  in  view  of  their  ability 
to  maintain  themselves  without  an  elaborate  camp  in  some 
of  the  out-of-the-way  places  where  it  was  with  the  greatest 
difficulty  that  we  were  able  to  pack  stuff  to  them. 


ORANGE  GROVE  NEAR  CAMELBACK  MOUNTAIN 
SALT  RIVER  PROJECT,  ARIZONA 


CULTIVATING  IN  YOUNG  ORCHARD  ON  THE  GRAND  MESA 
GRAND  VALLEY  PROJECT,   COLORADO 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  GIANT  SAHUAEO    77 

Merely  to  mention  one  of  the  minor  items,  showing 
the  difficulty  of  doing  the  work  in  this  remote  spot, 
I  recall  that  when  the  men  were  working  on  the  road 
at  the  top  of  the  Fish  Creek  Hill,  before  the  summer 
rains,  it  cost  the  Service  twenty-five  cents  per  day 
per  man,  to  haul  drinking  water  for  their  use,  as  it 
all  had  to  be  packed  on  mules. 

I  have  entered  thus  into  somewhat  particular  de- 
tails about  several  matters  to  give  the  reader  some 
idea  of  the  obstacles  the  supervising  and  project  en- 
gineers had  to  overcome.  The  accomplishment  of 
a  great  task  is  often  far  easier  than  the  building  up  of 
the  organization  with  which  it  is  to  be  done.  In  the 
beginning  of  its  work  the  Eeclamation  Service  had 
neither  the  men,  the  experience,  nor  the  organization. 

As  before  explained  the  Eoosevelt  Dam  is  for  the 
purpose  of  storing  water  until  needed.  The  water 
backs  up  for  a  distance  of  24  miles,  with  an  average 
width  of  one  mile.  At  its  deepest  the  reservoir  is 
225  feet  deep,  and  it  covers  16,832  acres  with  a  capac- 
ity of  1,367,300  acre-feet.  This  vast  reservoir  and 
its  surroundings,  has  now  become  a  national  pleas- 
ure park.  The  Southern  Pacific  Company  is  erect- 
ing a  magnificent  and  commodious  tourist  hotel  on  a 
point  quite  close  to  the  dam,  and  in  the  temporary 
villa  near  by,  scores  of  people  stop  daily  as  they  ride 
over  the  Apache  Trail,  or  come  for  a  week,  a  month, 
or  even  a  longer  vacation.  For  the  reservoir  is  well 
stocked  with  gamy  fish ;  there  are  power-boats,  sail- 
boats and  row-boats  in  number  to  be  hired ;  near-by 
are  wonderful  cliff-dwellings,  many  of  which  are  only 
recently  discovered,  and  there  are  places  where  deer, 


78         EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

antelope,  mountain-lion  and  bear  may  be  hunted,  as 
well  as  a  score  most  romantic,  picturesque  and  won- 
derful spots  where  fights  with  the  Apaches  have  given 
an  added  interest  to  places  that  are  as  striking  in 
their  scenic  qualities  as  any  of  the  famous  attractions 
of  the  continent. 

Instead,  therefore,  of  the  water  of  the  Salt  Eiver 
flowing  irregularly  as  it  did  prior  to  the  erection  of 
the  dam,  sufficient  is  allowed  to  escape  daily  for  all 
the  required  needs  of  the  many  ranchers  in  the  valley 
below.  From  this  dam  to  the  Granite  Eeef  Dam, 
which  is  four  miles  below  where  the  Verde  Eiver 
empties  into  Salt  Eiver,  the  water  flows  in  the  old  bed 
of  the  river  itself.  This  dam  receives  its  name  from 
a  great  reef  of  granite  on  which  it  is  placed.  It  is  of 
rubble  concrete  weir  type,  with  a  maximum  height  of 
38  feet,  and  a  length  across  stream  of  1,100  feet,  and 
diverts  the  water  to  the  systems  of  the  North  and 
South  Side  canals. 

In  addition  to  these  dams,  there  have  been  put  into 
operation  nine  pumping-plants,  with  an  approximate 
capacity  each  of  ten  second-feet.  One  pumping- 
plant,  located  at  the  junction  of  the  Western  Canal 
and  the  Kyrene  branch,  pumps  water  through  a  54- 
inch  pressure  pipe  5,930  feet  long  to  an  elevation  of 
40  feet,  and  waters  approximately  7,500  acres  of 
land.  All  the  electric  power  used  in  these  plants  is 
generated  at  Eoosevelt  Dam  by  water  from  the  res- 
ervoir. 

The  canal-  and  lateral-system  of  distribution  com- 
prises 815%  miles,  and  on  the  completion  of  the  en- 
tire project  will  provide  for  the  delivery  of  water  to 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  GIANT  SAHUAEO    79 

each  160-acre  tract  of  irrigable  land  in  the  over  two 
hundred  thousand  acres  of  the  valley. 

Irrigation  is  carried  on  365  days  in  the  year ;  the 
average  rainfall  is  approximately  eight  inches,  while 
the  average  elevation  of  the  irrigable  area  above  sea 
level  is  1,200  feet. 

The  original  contract  between  the  United  States 
and  the  Salt  Eiver  Valley  Water  Users'  Association 
provided  that  the  United  States  could  not  open  the 
project  until  after  the  completion  of  Koosevelt  Dam. 
As  the  time  of  the  completion  of  this  dam  grew  nearer 
and  nearer,  the  people  in  the  Salt  Eiver  Valley  felt 
that  something  should  be  done  to  postpone  the  time 
when  payment  must  begin,  and  accordingly  a  contract 
was  entered  into  by  the  United  States  and  the  Water 
Users'  Association,  whereby  the  latter  agreed  to 
build  three  power-plants  in  the  valley  and  do  certain 
work  up  to  an  estimated  cost  of  $900,000,  provided 
the  United  States  would  extend  the  opening  time  of 
the  project  at  least  two  years.  These  power-plants 
were  to  become  the  property  of  the  United  States  as 
soon  as  completed.  The  Water  Users'  Association 
fulfilled  its  part  of  the  contract.  The  power-plant 
at  Eoosevelt  that  was  used  to  build  the  dam  was 
added  to  until  now  its  capacity  is  about  10,000  K.  W., 
or  13,000  H.  P.  The  capacity  of  the  plants  in  the 
Valley  is  from  seven  to  eight  thousand  horsepower. 
Several  years  ago  contracts  were  entered  into  selling 
practically  all  the  power,  except  that  which  was  re- 
served to  fulfil  certain  contracts  and  for  pumping. 
The  plant  is  not  entirely  completed  to  date,  but  the 
revenue  received  for  the  months  of  May  and  June  of 


80         EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

this  year  are  about  $36,000  for  May  and  $39,000  for 
June,  or  net,  about  $28,000  and  $31,000. 

For  the  next  twenty  years,  therefore,  these  power 
plants  each  year  will  pay  all  that  portion  of  the  as- 
sessment against  the  project  due  to  their  cost  and  will 
reduce  that  part  of  the  payments  for  the  strictly  ir- 
rigation portion  by  a  very  large  percentage.  After 
the  project  is  paid  for  the  revenue  from  these  plants 
will  not  only  pay  the  entire  operating  expenses  of 
the  project  but  will  leave  a  handsome  surplus  for 
dividends  or  for  further  construction  and  improve- 
ments. 

Owing  to  great  floods  that  came  down  the  Salt 
Eiver  in  November,  1905,  the  contractor  lost  all  his 
works,  and  although  it  was  but  thirty-five  feet  to  bed- 
rock and  excavation  conditions  were  very  simple,  and 
there  was  little  if  anything  to  be  done  to  the  bedrock 
in  the  river,  it  was  not  until  September  20, 1906,  that 
the  first  stone  was  laid  on  the  Eoosevelt  Dam.  The 
celebration  announcing  its  completion  occurred  in 
March,  1911,  at  which  time,  President  Koosevelt  gave 
the  dedication  address. 

The  building  of  this  great  storage  reservoir,  of  the 
Granite  Eeef  diversion  dam  above  Phoenix,  and  the 
rehabilitation  of  the  old  canals  and  their  enlarge- 
ment and  the  construction  of  new  canals  in  the  valley, 
speedily  transformed  the  Salt  Eiver  Valley.  In 
1904-05  Phoenix  was  a  small  town  of  five  or  six  thou- 
sand inhabitants,  with  unpaved  streets,  and  in  a  gen- 
erally dilapidated  and  run-down  condition.  The 
farmers  over  the  whole  valley  were  somewhat  dis- 
couraged ;  for,  as  I  have  explained,  water  conditions 
were  extremely  bad.  No  diversion  dam  existed  in 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  GIANT  SAHUAEO    81 

the  river  but  such  as  would  go  out  with  every  flood, 
so  that  as  one  old  settler  said  at  the  dedication  of 
Granite  Eeef  Dam,  "Whenever  there  was  no  water 
in  the  river  we  had  good  dams,  but  whenever  there 
was  plenty  of  water  coming  down  the  river  the  water 
washed  away  our  structures  and  we  had  no  means  of 
diversion,"  so  that  it  was  frequently  a  question  of 
when  they  were  worse  off. 

After  the  completion  of  Granite  Eeef  Dam,  when- 
ever there  was  water  in  the  river  it  could  be  diverted 
into  the  canals,  and  after  Eoosevelt  Dam  was  fairly 
well  along,  so  that  the  lowest  gap  was  some  hundred 
feet  or  more  above  the  floor  of  the  stream,  there  was 
no  further  trouble  with  the  water  supply,  and  the  Salt 
Elver  Valley  has  changed  its  assessed  valuation  from 
somewhere  in  the  neighbourhood  of  fourteen  million 
dollars  to  about  eighty  million  dollars  in  about  eight 
or  nine  years.  This  alone  speaks  volumes  as  to  the 
value  of  irrigation  in  a  country  like  the  Salt  Eiver 
Valley. 

Merely  to  enumerate  the  varied  crops  that  will 
grow  in  this  highly  favoured  valley  would  be  to  fill 
up  pages  of  this  book.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  every- 
thing that  will  grow  anywhere  else  in  the  United 
States  can  be  grown  here,  with  preference  for  the 
semi-tropical  crops,  such  as  grape-fruit,  oranges, 
lemons,  Egyptian  cotton  and  the  like.  In  this  year, 
1917,  the  Goodyear  Eubber  Company,  who  have  thor- 
oughly investigated  the  growth  of  Egyptian  cotton, 
have  purchased  or  leased  21,000  acres,  which  they  are 
now  planting  to  this  one  crop  alone.  An  even  better 
variety  of  cotton,  however,  than  the  Egyptian,  has 
been  developed  in  the  Salt  Eiver  Valley,  known  as 


82         RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

the  Pima  Cotton,  and  this  is  the  variety  the  Good- 
years  are  planting. 

Last  year's  (1916)  crop  report  showed  47,349 
dairy  cattle;  23,964  beef  cattle;  125,000  sheep;  71,500 
hogs;  299,600  fowls;  1,600  ostriches;  9,640  hives  of 
bees.  Eighty-one  thousand  acres  of  alfalfa  pro- 
duced 326,000  tons;  thirteen  thousand  acres  of  bar- 
ley produced  332,000  bushels.  There  is  also  a  splen- 
did market  for  dairy  and  beef  cattle,  these  latter  be- 
ing pastured  on  the  mountain  ranges  and  fattened  on 
the  valley  fields.  In  1917  nearly  double  the  number 
of  dairy  cattle  are  daily  being  milked. 

The  chief  city  of  the  Salt  Eiver  Valley  is  Phoenix, 
which  is  one  of  the  most  rapidly  growing  cities  of  the 
West.  It  now  has  a  population  of  about  24,000  and 
is  becoming  a  truly  cosmopolitan  and  rarely  beautiful 
city.  Its  winter  climate  is  making  it  world-famed 
and  its  suburban  localities,  like  Ingleside,  have  at- 
tracted such  world-travellers  as  Sir  Gilbert  Parker, 
the  distinguished  statesman  and  novelist,  who  comes 
here  for  recuperation  every  winter.  At  Chandler, 
one  of  the  new  towns  that  have  recently  sprung  up  in 
the  Salt  Kiver  Valley,  with  a  present  population  of 
600,  the  already-famous  San  Marcos  Hotel  has  been 
erected,  which  has  in  three  seasons  become  to  Ari- 
zona what  the  Glenwood  Mission  Inn  is  to  California. 
Though  increasingly  enlarged  each  year  it  is  yet 
found  to  be  crowded  as  soon  as  each  winter  season 
opens.  Other  towns  in  the  Valley,  with  their  popu- 
lations, are  Mesa,  3,000;  Glendale,  1,200;  Tempe, 
2,000;  Peoria,  300;  Gilbert,  50;  Scottsdale,  30. 

These  are  but  straws  that  point  out  the  path  of 
continued  progress  in  the  future.  Those  who  regard 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  GIANT  SAHUABO    83 

Arizona  as  a  mere  state  of  wild  pioneers  and  wilder 
cowboys  will  soon  be  compelled  to  revise  their  ignor- 
ance. They  have  not  considered  the  civilizing  effect 
of  the  Salt  Eiver  Project  of  the  United  States  Eec- 
lamation  Service. 

The  project  was  opened  by  order  of  the  Secretary 
of  the  Interior  on  January  18,  1917,  it  being  under- 
stood that  the  first  payment  was  to  be  made  Decem- 
ber 1st  of  this  year.  The  cost  of  the  project  in  the 
opening  notice  was  fixed  at  $60  an  acre,  to  be  paid 
in  twenty  annual  payments  without  interest,  $1.20 
per  acre  each  year  for  the  first  four  years,  $2.40  per 
acre  for  the  next  two  years,  then  $3.60  per  acre  each 
year  for  the  next  fourteen  years. 

The  Water  Users'  Association  is  now  negotiating  a 
contract  and  it  is  expected  that  the  project  will  be 
turned  over  to  them.  This,  however,  will  have  to  be 
accomplished  through  a  vote  of  the  Water  Users'  As- 
sociation. There  is  no  government  land  subject  to 
location  on  the  project.  Any  prospective  settler 
coming  here  must  purchase  land  from  its  owner. 
Prices  range  from  $100  per  acre  up. 

The  cost  of  water  in  the  past  has  been  $1  for  the 
first  two  acre-feet  per  acre;  60^  per  acre-foot  for  the 
third  acre-foot,  and  75^  for  each  acre-foot  over  the 
third.  In  1917  on  account  of  the  heavy  expenditures 
caused  by  the  floods,  the  price  of  the  first  acre-foot 
has  been  increased  to  $1  with  a  charge  of  60^  per 
acre-foot  for  the  second  and  third  acre-feet  per  acre, 
and  75^  for  all  over  that  amount.  It  is  not  probable, 
however,  that  this  charge  will  be  in  force  more  than 
this  one  year.  The  engineer-manager  has  been  pay- 
ing a  good  deal  of  attention  to  the  power  possibil- 


84         EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

ities,  and  points  with  some  little  pride  to  the  success 
of  the  system,  as  it  is  very  interesting  to  see  an  irri- 
gating project  pay  its  own  way  by  the  power  develop- 
ment as  a  sort  of  by-product. 

A  brief  sketch  of  what  has  been  accomplished  in 
this  department  will  fittingly  bring  this  chapter  to  a 
close.  Of  the  approximately  ten  and  a  half  million 
dollars  expended  on  the  Salt  Eiver  Project,  three  and 
a  half  millions  went  to  pay  for  the  hydro-electric 
power-system.  That  is  of  the  $60  per  acre  charged 
the  settler  for  construction,  $20  was  spent  on  the 
power-system  in  the  expectation  that  speedily  it 
would  become  a  dividend-paying  proposition.  This 
system  as  now  developed  consists  of  plants  at  Roose- 
velt Dam,  the  Arizona  Canal  Drop,  South  and  Main 
Consolidated  Canals  Drop,  and  Tempe  Canal  Drop. 
These  plants  are  connected  by  a  permanent  45,000- 
volt  transmission  line  strung  on  steel  towers  set  in 
concrete  footings,  all  the  construction  being  of  the 
most  up-to-date  character.  There  are  six  substa- 
tions, Phoenix,  Glendale,  Sacaton  Indian  Reserva- 
tion, Chandler,  Mesa  and  Miami. 

This  power-system  was  primarily  intended  to  give 
power  for  the  construction  of  Roosevelt  Dam,  but 
when  this  work  was  completed  it  was  found  there  was 
a  growing  demand  for  electric  power  throughout  the 
Salt  River  Valley  and  cities  approximately  near  to 
the  Dam.  The  stations  named  are  each  now  using 
this  power,  and  from  December  1,  1915,  to  April  30, 
1917,  the  plants  showed  an  earning  capacity,  above 
cost  of  operation,  of  $313,372.08.  In  addition  to  this 
the  Service  used  for  pumping  power  to  the  extent  of 
$15,173.99,  and  charged  off  as  "cost"  for  deprecia- 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  GIANT  SAHUAEO    85 

tion  $116,521.08.  Hence  it  will  be  seen  how  profitable 
this  power-system  will  be  to  the  Water  Users  '  Asso- 
ciation when  it  comes  into  full  possession  of  it,  and 
the  clear  indication  of  the  tremendous  benefits  that 
are  accruing  to  the  people  themselves  from  the  con- 
struction and  operation  of  these  great  and  beneficial 
public  works. 

The  present  Project  Manager  is  William  S.  Cone, 
with  office  at  Phoenix,  Arizona. 


CHAPTER  VII 

IN   THE   VALLEY   OF   THE   AMEBICAN   NILE.      THE 


The  Colorado  Eiver  has  always  suggested  the  Nile, 
and  the  Mohave,  Colorado,  Arizona  and  Sonora  Des- 
erts that  it  crosses  are  near  enough  like  Egypt  to 
suggest  it  in  everything  save  its  pyramids,  sphynx, 
ancient  ruins,  and  modern  fellaheen.  The  fertility 
of  the  soil  in  the  one  valley  is  matched  by  that  of  the 
other;  and  now  that  modern  irrigation  methods  are 
conducted  on  a  large  scale,  the  dam  of  Assouan  is 
matched  by  that  of  Laguna.  Date  palms  wave  over 
fields  of  cotton,  alfalfa,  wheat,  barley,  milo-maize, 
Egyptian  corn,  chili  and  a  score  of  other  grains  and 
vegetables,  while  the  same  pure  blue  sky  and  insistent 
sun  overarch  the  scene  during  the  day  and  the  rich 
velvety  pall  of  bluish  black,  studded  with  brilliantly 
scintillant  stars,  covers  it  during  the  night. 

While  the  Colorado  Eiver  in  the  earlier  years  of 
American  occupancy  was  called  the  Eed  Eiver  of 
the  West,  and  from  Spanish  days  was  supposed  to  be 
navigable,  it  was  soon  found  that  its  usefulness  in 
that  department  of  state  and  national  life  was  more 
imaginative  than  real.  Lieutenant  Ives  graphically 
recorded  his  struggles  to  ascend  it  in  his  small  stern- 
wheeler,  and  his  discovery  of  the  canyons  through 
which  it  flowed  ere  it  entered  the  desert.  So  roman- 
tic and  different  is  the  Colorado  that  F.  S.  Dellen- 
baugh  has  published  a  fascinating  volume  entitled 

86 


THE  AMERICAN  NILE  87 

The  Romance  of  the  Colorado  River,  devoted  to  its 
history. 

In  her  Vanished  Arizona  Mrs.  Summerhayes  gives 
a  vivid  picture  of  the  trip  she  took  up  the  Colorado 
when  she  went  to  join  her  husband,  who  was  ordered 
to  one  of  the  military  posts  of  Arizona.  The  brown, 
sluggish  flood,  the  wide  expanse  of  desert  on  either 
side,  the  heat,  the  slowly  progressing  vessel,  the 
sand-bars  are  all  brought  clearly  before  the  reader, 
and,  on  reflection,  the  conclusion  arises  that  the  Colo- 
rado River  is  not  a  river  of  commerce;  it  is  not  a  nat- 
ural navigable  channel  for  the  ships  of  trade.  While 
stern-wheelers  of  small  craft  can  go  up  the  river  from 
the  Gulf  of  California  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  Black 
Canyon  when  the  conditions  are  favourable,  fifty 
years  of  experience  and  knowledge  have  demon- 
strated that  it  is  far  less  a  river  of  transportation 
today  than  it  was  in  the  beginning.  Hence  it  was  a 
great,  and  today  it  is  a  source  of  deep  regret,  that 
the  United  States,  in  its  convention  with  Mexico, 
upon  the  fixing  of  the  boundary  line  between  the  two 
countries,  affirmed  that  it  was  a  navigable  stream. 
This  affirmation  has  stood  in  the  way  of  the  full  util- 
ization of  the  waters  of  the  river  for  purposes  of  irri- 
gation, evidently  the  chief  usefulness,  at  the  present, 
anyhow,  it  may  attain. 

Long  ago  Major  J.  W.  Powell  realized  this  as  a 
fact,  and  he  foresaw  the  diversion  of  the  almost  use- 
less waters  of  the  river  upon  the  rich  soil  on  either 
side  of  its  lower  course.  Above  this  lower  stretch 
its  banks  rise  to  the  towering  walls  of  canyons,  cul- 
minating in  that  natural  phenomenon  of  majestic 
scenery  known  as  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado 


88         EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

— the  most  stupendous  abyss  of  rock  known  to  man. 
Hence,  when  the  Eeclamation  Act  was  passed,  one  of 
the  first  rivers  to  be  thoroughly  and  intelligently 
studied  was  the  Colorado,  with  a  view  to  the  utiliza- 
tion of  its  waters  upon  the  near-by  desert  lands. 

The  Colorado,  however,  presented  so  many  prob- 
lems, difficult  of  solution,  that  it  was  not  easy  to  de- 
termine where  the  diversion  dam  needed  should  be 
located,  or  to  fix  upon  the  type  of  dam  which  should 
be  constructed.  Two  or  three  sites  were  proposed, 
and  systematically  studied  from  the  engineering 
standpoint  before  the  site  of  the  present  dam  was  de- 
termined upon.  Another  difficulty  was  found  to 
exist,  that  the  normal  low-water  supply  of  the  Colo- 
rado Eiver  was  insufficient  for  the  satisfactory  irri- 
gation of  the  large  areas  contemplated,  and  this  could 
be  remedied  only  by  the  creation  of  large  storage 
reservoirs  in  the  drainage  areas  of  the  Grand  and 
Green  Eiver  systems,  these  rivers  forming  the  Colo- 
rado. It  was  finally  decided,  however,  that  there  was 
a  sufficiency  of  water  for  the  irrigation  of  the  Yuma 
lands,  and  after  the  making  of  the  preliminary  sur- 
veys, the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  May  10,  1904, 
authorized  the  construction  of  the  dam  at  Laguna, 
ten  miles  northeast  of  Yuma. 

It  was  originally  contemplated  that  the  main  diver- 
sion would  be  on  the  Arizona  side ;  the  water  would 
be  carried  down  toward  the  Yuma  Valley  on  that  side 
of  the  river,  siphoned  under  the  Gila  and  passed 
through  a  tunnel  under  the  mesa  back  of  the  town  of 
Yuma.  Further  study  made  evident  many  difficul- 
ties in  this  route,  and  after  more  study  and  a  number 
of  estimates  made,  the  canal  was  finally  located  on 


THE  AMEKICAN  NILE  89 

the  California  side  and  carried  under  the  Colorado 
Eiver  in  a  siphon  at  Yuma  immediately  below  where 
the  railroad  bridge  crosses  the  Colorado  River.  In 
addition  to  serving  land  on  the  California  side,  in  the 
old  Indian  reservation,  this  water  also  serves  lands 
on  the  Arizona  side  below  Yuma  in  the  lower  Yuma 
Valley,  and  it  is  planned  that,  ere  long,  it  will  also  be 
pumped  up,  from  80  to  100  feet,  to  the  mesa  lands 
south  of  Yuma,  where  from  forty  to  seventy  thou- 
sand acres  of  excellent  citrus  fruit  lands  will  be  re- 
claimed. The  oranges  and  grape-fruit  grown  hither- 
to on  these  lands  are  of  the  finest  quality,  and  while 
the  pumping  will  be  expensive,  the  value  of  the  lands 
will  more  than  justify  the  expenditure. 

The  lands  adjacent  to  the  Colorado  Eiver  are  pro- 
tected from  overflow  during  flood  times  by  means  of 
dikes. 

The  board  of  engineers,  which  approved  the  plans 
for  the  project,  consisted  of  Messrs.  A.  P.  Davis, 
present  Director  and  Chief  Engineer ;  G.  Y.  Wisner, 
J.  H.  Quinton,  W.  H.  Sander,  B.  M.  Hall,  and  H.  N. 
Savage.  The  preliminary  surveys  were  directed  by 
Mr.  J.  B.  Lippincott  from  the  mouth  of  the  canyon 
where  the  Colorado  Eiver  emerges  to  the  Mexican 
boundary.  He  finally  selected  this  site,  as  it  prom- 
ised most,  everything  being  considered,  though  an- 
other project,  to  be  located  near  Parker,  which  would 
have  irrigated  100,000  acres,  was  seriously  consid- 
ered. At  that  time,  however,  there  was  no  railway  at 
Parker,  and  this  is  essential  not  only  for  purposes  of 
construction  but  also  to  provide  a  means  of  market- 
ing the  products  of  the  project. 

There  being  no  bed  rock  in  the  Colorado  Eiver  at 


90         KECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

this,  or  any  other  available  location,  it  was  decided  to 
construct  an  overflow  weir  of  the  Indian  type.  This 
is  built  on  the  quicksands  of  the  river,  anchored  in 
solid  rock  on  each  side.  Its  dimensions  are,  roughly, 
length  4,780  feet,  maximum  width  250  feet,  height 
fifteen  to  nineteen  feet  except  in  centre,  which  is  forty 
feet,  composed  of  a  rock-fill  between  two  parallel 
walls  of  concrete  extending  entirely  across  the 
stream  between  the  natural  rock  abutments  on  each 
bank.  The  top  of  the  rock-fill  and  the  down-stream 
surface  of  the  dam  are  sheeted  with  a  concrete  pave- 
ment eighteen  inches  thick. 

The  backwaters  above  the  dam  form  a  lake  ten 
miles  in  length  and  of  varying  width.  The  water  of 
the  Colorado  Eiver  sometimes  bears  three  per  cent,  of 
silt,  and  when  used  direct  from  the  stream  upon  agri- 
cultural lands  produces  a  ' i  silt  blanket, ' '  detrimental 
to  the  best  crop  results.  The  problem  that  science 
was  called  upon  to  solve  through  the  medium  of 
modern  engineering  was  to  eliminate  a  part  of  this 
silt  deposit  and  still  allow  sufficient  percentage  of  it 
to  be  carried  down  to  the  farms  to  insure  constant 
natural  fertilization  of  the  soil.  This  has  been  ac- 
complished by  means  of  concrete  sluiceways  at  both 
ends  of  the  dam,  one  in  Arizona  and  the  other  in  Cali- 
fornia. These  sluiceways  are  1,000  feet  in  length 
and  so  graduated  in  dimension  that  the  water  that 
passes  through  them  maintains  a  velocity  of  about 
sixty  feet  to  the  minute,  allowing  the  proper  propor- 
tion of  silt  to  form  sediment  in  the  bottom.  It  is 
flushed  off  periodically,  through  openings  constructed 
for  the  purpose,  into  the  river  below  the  dam. 

The  two  sluiceways  form  the  communicating  link 


THE  AMEEICAN  NILE  91 

between  the  lake  above  the  dam  and  canal  system. 
At  their  respective  outlets  are  "controllers"  allow- 
ing the  water  to  flow  as  wanted  into  the  canals.  The 
controllers  are  so  arranged  that  the  top  water  only 
flows  over,  retaining  the  silt  behind  the  gates  to  be 
sluiced  into  the  river  as  described.  The  soluble  fer- 
tilizer carried  in  the  water  is  not  impaired  and  only 
the  proper  proportion  of  silt  goes  with  it. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey  Water  Supply  Paper  274  reports  that 
338,000,000  tons  of  mud  and  silt,  as  suspended  mat- 
ter, together  with  4,550,000  tons  of  sodium  chloride, 
or  common  salt,  3,740,000  tons  of  Glauber's  salts, 
4,000,000  tons  of  lime,  2,400,000  tons  of  gypsum,  and 
4,800,000  tons  of  Epsom  salts,  are  annually  carried 
by  the  Colorado  Eiver  and  deposited  in  the  Gulf  of 
California. 

Ever  since  the  gold  rush  to  California  in  1849 
Yuma  has  been  Veil  known.  It  was  near  here  that 
the  Spaniards,  over  a  century  before,  established  two 
Franciscan  Missions  for  the  Indians,  both  of  which 
ended  disastrously.  The  Indians  rebelled  against 
religious  control  and  the  exactions  of  the  Spanish 
soldiers,  slew  the  friars  and  other  hated  foreigners, 
and  destroyed  the  Missions.  This  same  spirit  was 
shown  when  the  American  gold-seekers  and  pioneers 
came  into  the  land.  Hence  a  fort  was  established,  on 
the  hill  overlooking  the  Colorado  Eiver,  on  the  Cali- 
fornia side,  which,  however,  has  long  since  been 
abandoned,  and  is  now  used  as  the  headquarters  of 
the  Indian  agency  and  school. 

While  Ehrenburg,  further  up  the  river,  was  the 
landing-place  for  the  stern-wheelers  that  plied  up 


92         EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

and  down  from  the  Gulf  of  California,  and  supplies 
for  Arizona  were  hauled  therefrom,  the  coming  of 
the  Southern  Pacific  Eailway,  in  1877,  created  a  depot 
for  supplies  for  the  great  mining  industry  of  the 
region  which  from  now  on  began  to  develop  with 
rapidity.  But  it  was  not  until  the  late  'eighties 
and  early  'nineties  that  agriculturists  awoke  to  the 
marvellous  fertility  of  the  Colorado  Eiver  valleys, 
and  when  they  did,  there  were  not  enough  of  them  to 
combat  the  mighty  power  of  the  turbulent  and  uncon- 
trolled Colorado  in  flood  times.  For,  with  its  vast 
watershed  of  242,000  square  miles,  including  the 
headwaters  of  the  Grand  and  Green  rivers  in  Wyo- 
ming, Utah  and  Colorado,  which  reach  up  into  the 
high  mountain  ranges,  where  the  snow  falls  deep  and 
long,  it  pours  down  incredible  volumes  of  water  when 
the  springtime  opens  up  the  floodgates.  The  puny 
attempts  of  the  earlier  settlers  at  damming  the  river 
and  building  controlling  levees  were  pathetic  in 
their  inadequacy. 

Yet  the  land  allured  and  beckoned  with  a  fervour 
that  many  could  not  resist.  And  the  years  to  come, 
when  all  the  beneficent  work  of  the  Eeclamation 
Service  is  completed,  and  time  for  development  and 
stability  has  proved  the  wisdom  of  the  foundation- 
layers,  will  demonstrate  how  far-seeing  were  some 
of  these  men  who  staked  their  little  all  of  money  and 
their  prodigality  of  work  and  faith,  only  to  see  every- 
thing swept  away  by  an  unexpected  flood.  For  we 
now  know  that  this  Colorado  Eiver  is  the  Nile  of 
America,  and  that  there  is  no  richer  land  under  the 
sun.  It  has  been  the  fashion  to  joke  about  the  heat 
of  Yuma,  and  there  is  no  denying  its  heat — which 


THE  AMERICAN  NILE  93 

ranges  as  high  as  119°  Fahr. — but  men  of  wisdom  are 
now  seeing  in  that  heat  the  great  factor  in  the  won- 
derful growth  of  crops  in  the  Yuma  region.  With  a 
rich  and  fertile  soil,  an  abundance  of  water,  and  heat 
— steady,  persistent  high  temperature — the  country 
becomes  a  great  forcing-house,  a  conservatory  for 
the  growing  of  fruits,  vegetables,  etc.,  that  struggle 
to  attain  maturity  elsewhere.  Sensible  men,  there- 
fore, seeking  a  location  where  they  can  control  the 
growing  of  rare  crops,  gravitate  toward  Yuma.  The 
Reclamation  Service  officially  states: 

In  climate  Yuma  Valley  is  dry  and  semitropic,  a  climate 
productive  nof  only  of  wealth  but  of  health.  While  the 
temperature  averages  about  seventy-three  degrees,  the 
thermometer  does  not  give  any  idea  of  the  climatic  con- 
ditions because  of  the  lack  of  humidity  in  the  atmosphere. 
The  secret  of  the  long  growing  season  lies  in  the  fact  that 
the  sun  shines  ninety-five  per  cent,  of  the  days  of  the  year, 
and  it  is  rarely  cold  enough  to  injure  the  most  delicate 
plant.  Flowers  bloom  the  year  around,  and  the  frosts 
which  occur  occasionally  in  the  early  morning  hours  of  the 
winter  months,  notably  in  December  and  January,  are  not 
severe  enough  to  interfere  with  winter  gardening.  The 
rainfall  averages  about  three  inches  and  occurs  at  irregular 
intervals  during  the  summer,  fall  and  winter  months.  The 
valley  is  free  from  severe  storms  and  tornadoes  are'  un- 
known. The  most  severe  wind-storms  rarely  last  more  than 
twelve  hours,  and  during  these  no  houses  or  trees  are  in- 
jured. Night  is  as  comfortable  as  the  day,  and  throughout 
the  year  many  people  sleep  in  houses  constructed  of  cheese- 
cloth stretched  over  frames. 

Nature  has  not  only  supplied  the  region  of  the  Yuma 
Project  with  many  of  those  features  essential  to  the  pro- 
duction and  maintenance  of  abundant  life,  but  has  left  it 
singularly  free  from  destroying  elements.  The  valley  lies 
outside  the  path  of  the  regular  winds,  and  is  therefore  never 


94         BECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

visited  by  severe  storms.  The  evening  winds  from  the  Gulf 
of  California  appreciably  lessen  the  heat  of  the  day  and 
make  the  nights  pleasant. 

It  is  also  well  to  remember  that  during  the  last 
thirty-five  years  there  have  been  but  145  days  when 
the  Government  thermometer  recorded  to  and  below 
thirty-two  degrees  Fahrenheit,  an  average  of  four 
to  the  year,  and  on  four  of  those  years  freezing-point 
was  not  reached.  The  period  during  which  the '  '  cold 
spell"  lasts  is  from  two  to  five  hours. 

Hence  it  will  be  seen  that  the  growing  season  is 
from  January  first  to  December  thirty-first,  without 
cessation,  and  that  the  possible  variety  of  fruit  and 
vegetable  products  is  unlimited.  While  citrus  fruits 
do  not  thrive  in  the  lower  lands  of  the  river  bottom 
they  do  well  on  the  mesa  above  Yuma.  Indeed, 
though  I  myself  am  a  Californian,  I  confess  freely 
that  the  oranges  of  the  Yuma  mesa  are  richer  in 
flavour  and  sugar  content  than  California  grown 
fruit,  and  that  in  my  judgment,  there  are  no  grape- 
fruit in  the  world  that  can  compare  with  those  grown 
here.  I  have  eaten  half  a  dozen,  one  after  another, 
without  sugar,  so  rich  and  delicious  do  they  ripen 
in  this  beneficent  clime.  Then,  too,  citrus  fruits 
ripen  so  early  that  they  are  in  the  market  before 
Christmas,  and  thus  bring  the  highest  prices. 

Egyptian  cotton,  with  its  long,  fine,  strong  staple, 
is  rapidly  becoming  a  profitable  crop.  It  is  found  to 
grow  here  as  well  as  in  its  native  Nile  habitat,  and  as 
soon  as  the  farmer  overcomes  the  initial  difficulties 
in  its  production,  he  realizes  large  profit  from  its 
cultivation. 


THE  AMEKICAN  NILE  95 

Date  culture  is  also  assured.  The  experimental 
stage  is  practically  passed.  Profitable  results  have 
been  obtained  at  the  Experimental  Station,  and  while 
the  bringing  of  date  palms  to  maturity  and  bearing 
is  rather  a  slow  process  those  who  can  afford  to  plant 
and  wait  are  pretty  certain  of  satisfactory  returns. 
Dates  need  great  heat  and  an  abundance  of  water 
— "feet  in  water  and  heads  in  the  sun,"  say  the 
Arabs — and  the  abundant  supply  of  water  now  se- 
cured by  the  Eeclamation  Service,  combined  with  the 
steady  sunshine,  provides  these  two  needed  factors  in 
their  profitable  development. 

Of  vegetable-growth  too  much  cannot  be  said. 
During  the  winter  cabbage,  cauliflower,  beets,  lettuce, 
radishes,  onions,  endive  and  many  others  thrive 
and  they  can  be  grown  the  rest  of  the  year  also. 
Luscious  watermelons,  cantaloupes,  casabas,  enor- 
mous tomatoes  of  exceptional  flavour,  wonderful  cu- 
cumbers yield  over  and  over  during  the  warmer  sea- 
son as  long  as  they  are  planted,  irrigated  and  culti- 
vated. Sweet  corn  may  be  planted  every  three 
weeks  from  February  to  the  middle  of  August  and 
will  furnish  roasting  ears  considerably  more  than 
half  the  year  without  interval. 

As  soon  as  one  crop  is  harvested  the  ground  is 
ready  for  another.  By  planting  between  the  rows 
of  growing  corn  or  potatoes,  for  example,  two  crops 
will  result  from  the  same  ground  at  practically  the 
same  time.  Irish  potatoes  can  be  planted  in  Jan- 
uary and  harvested  in  May.  Corn  planted  between 
the  potato  rows  in  March  will  mature  by  June  1st. 
On  the  same  ground  corn  has  been  planted  August 
1st  and  turnips  added  between  the  rows  the  last  of 


96         EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

September,  all  maturing.  Vine  products,  such  as 
pumpkins,  squash  and  others,  produce  heavily.  Su- 
gar-cane, sorghum,  peanuts,  maize  and  the  like  are 
native.  Milo-maize  has  become  quite  a  standard 
stock  feed  and  is  used  to  some  extent  for  human  con- 
sumption. Its  grain  is  very  rich  and  nutritious.  It 
turns  out  about  four  tons  of  threshed  grain  per  acre. 

Alfalfa  is  the  principal  hay  crop,  and  its  growth, 
like  everything  else  in  this  section,  is  very  rapid.  A 
cutting  of  hay  is  not  uncommon  at  three  months  from 
planting  the  seed,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  secure 
seven,  eight,  nine  and,  in  some  cases,  as  high  as  ten 
and  even  twelve  cuttings  per  year,  with  an  average 
yield  of  from  ten  to  twelve  tons  per  acre.  Alfalfa 
seed  is  also  a  profitable  product,  one  farmer  having 
secured  as  much  as  1,800  pounds  per  acre,  from  four 
acres.  Another  farmer's  yield  on  thirty-four  acres 
was  1,200  pounds  per  acre. 

Barley  and  corn  may  be  grown  on  the  same  ground 
the  same  year,  each  producing  fifty  bushels  to  the 
acre.  Barley  is  also  grown  for  hay  and  yields  from 
two  to  four  tons  per  acre.  Wheat  and  barley  can  be 
sown  in  the  fall  and  pastured  all  winter,  and  a  good 
crop  harvested  early  in  May.  Alaska  wheat  does 
very  well  here.  The  grains  are  large,  clean  and  very 
nutritious.  All  grains  are  free  from  smut  or  other 
diseases  or  pests  in  this  locality. 

Under  such  conditions  it  can  be  seen  that  hogs, 
cattle  and  poultry  thrive.  With  an  abundance  of 
water  and  varied  fodder  and  grains  for  feed  they 
fatten  readily,  and  being  on  the  main  line  of  the 
Southern  Pacific  Railway,  with  the  Arizona  mining 
country  for  market  on  the  one  side,  and  California 


THE  AMERICAN  NILE  97 

with  its  vast  tourist  and  regular  population  on  the 
other,  the  profitable  disposal  of  all  products  is  as- 
sured. Yuma  is  251  miles  southeast  of  Los  Angeles, 
250  miles  west  of  Tucson,  Arizona,  197  miles  south- 
west of  Phoenix,  the  capital  of  Arizona,  and  562  miles 
west  of  El  Paso,  Texas.  It  is  on  the  Ocean-to-Ocean 
Highway,  with  that  magnificent  highway  affording 
ready  communication  in  both  directions.  A  fine  steel 
bridge  now  crosses  the  Colorado  Eiver,  and  this  nat- 
urally makes  Yuma  a  converging  point  for  automo- 
bile travel  to  and  from  East  or  West.  The  span  is 
over  350  feet.  There  are  also  two  Howe  truss 
bridges,  one  on  the  main  canal  of  110-foot  span,  and 
the  other  over  the  Reservation  Drainage  Canal,  on 
the  Ocean-to-Ocean  Highway. 

Yuma  is  a  growing  city,  fairly  progressive,  as  its 
appearance  testifies.  It  has  a  fine  high  school,  with 
excellent  grammar  schools  and  churches,  public 
works  that  are  a  credit  and  modern  clubs,  including 
two  women's  clubs.  In  the  schools  six  languages 
are  taught.  The  streets  are  macadamised,  the  city 
has  cement  sidewalks,  a  good  water  system,  electric 
lights  and  gas,  two  banks,  several  hotels,  two  daily 
and  one  weekly  newspaper,  some  manufacturing  con- 
cerns, canneries  and  up-to-date  places  of  amusement. 

A  cursory  survey  of  the  vast  engineering  plant 
and  work  of  the  Reclamation  Service  reveals  the  se- 
cret of  Yuma's  development,  together  with  that  of 
the  surrounding  country,  including  the  smaller  settle- 
ments of  Somerton,  Gadsen,  Kopa,  Wendendale, 
Bouse,  Potholes  and  Bard. 

The  Laguna  Dam,  though  submerged,  is  a  scene 
to  stir  one's  imagination.  It  is  4,780  feet  long,  and 


98         EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

250  feet  wide.  It  was  a  gigantic  task,  not  finan- 
cially successful  to  its  first  contractors.  Conse- 
quently it  had  to  be  completed  by  the  Reclamation 
Service's  own  engineers  and  workmen. 

During  the  building  of  this  monster  structure  the 
most  severe  test  upon  the  ability  of  man  to  stop  the 
river  was  experienced  when  the  centre  of  the  stream 
was  reached.  The  sluiceways  at  either  end  were 
intended  to  carry  the  flow  of  the  river  during  the  con- 
struction period,  their  capacity  being  16,000  second- 
feet.  As  the  cofferdams  were  extended  from  either 
side  of  the  river  the  opening  in  the  centre  became 
narrower  and  the  quantity  of  water  forced  through 
the  sluiceways,  constantly  increased.  When  mat- 
ters were  in  this  critical  shape  word  was  received 
from  the  man  on  lookout  duty  up  stream  that  a  flood 
was  on  its  way  down  and  would  reach  the  dam  in  a 
few  hours.  Every  man  on  the  work  knew  that  the 
battle  was  on  from  that  moment.  The  force  was 
increased  to  600  men  and  trainload  after  trainload  of 
quarry  stone  was  dumped  into  the  opening.  All 
through  the  night  the  men  toiled,  under  electric  light, 
not  knowing  at  what  moment  the  cofferdam  might 
give  away  under  the  weight  of  the  rising  flood. 
From  the  supervising  engineer,  L.  C.  Hill,  down  to 
the  foremen  every  man  was  in  his  place  on  the  line 
of  battle,  and  by  taking  advantage  at  every  point, 
the  dam  was  kept  above  the  torrent,  and  the  victory 
over  the  Colorado  was  won. 

The  great  concrete  structures  for  diverting  the 
flow  of  water  on  either  side  of  the  river  are  impres- 
sive and  satisfying,  and  equally  so  as  one  drives 
along  the  canals  and  laterals,  and  over  the  substan- 


THE  AMERICAN  NILE  99 

tial  concrete  bridges,  getting  glimpses  all  the  way 
along  of  the  235  wooden  structures  of  various  types, 
comprising  farm-unit  water  gates,  lateral  checks,  and 
turnouts,  culverts,  bridges,  drops,  etc. 

The  great  siphon,  for  the  conveyance  of  1,400  sec- 
ond-feet of  water,  was  built  under  the  oversight  of 
Francis  L.  Sellew,  the  project  engineer.  This  em- 
braced concrete  caissons  for  two  shafts,  connected 
by  a  concrete  tube  under  the  river,  having  a  diameter 
of  fourteen  feet.  The  tunnel  was  driven  from  the 
Arizona  side,  the  men  working  under  compressed  air, 
which  was  necessary  to  prevent  seepage  from  above. 
The  depth  of  the  shaft  is  80  feet  on  both  the  Califor- 
nia and  Arizona  sides,  the  concrete  tunnel  being 
950  feet  in  length.  The  up-stream  end  of  the  siphon 
is  controlled  by  a  cylinder  gate  protected  by  a  screen 
to  keep  large  floating  objects  from  entering.  The 
gate  is  14  feet  in  diameter. 

The  tower  above  the  siphon  on  the  California  side 
is  a  handsome  concrete  structure,  surmounted  by  an 
American  eagle  done  in  solid  brass. 

The  Reclamation  Service,  in  order  to  further  its 
construction  work,  built  a  railway  on  the  levee  on  the 
California  side,  thirteen  miles  in  length,  from  Yuma 
to  Potholes — as  the  station  at  Laguna  Dam  is  called. 
It  is  now  operated  by  the  Southern  Pacific  Company. 
The  Reclamation  Service  also  constructed  a  railway 
upon  its  levee  on  the  Arizona  side  reaching  down 
from  Yuma  to  the  Mexican  line.  This  comprises 
about  25%  miles  and  it  is  operated  for  the  conven- 
ience of  the  settlers  of  the  Yuma  Valley,  as  well  as 
for  the  necessary  protection  of  the  levees  from  flood. 

The  irrigable  area  of  the  Yuma  Project  comprises 


100       EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

some  128,000  acres,  divided  into  separate  units,  as 
follows:  Yuma  Indian  Reservation,  15,000  acres,  of 
which  6,500  acres  were  opened  to  white  settlers  under 
public  notice  in  1910,  the  balance  being  divided 
among  the  Indians  in  10-acre  plats;  Yuma  Valley, 
55,000  acres ;  Gila  Valley,  18,000  acres,  8,000  of  which 
are  on  the  north  side  of  the  Gila  River ;  and  the  mesa 
land,  40,000  acres. 

The  Service  is  now  ready  to  supply  water  to  60,000 
acres.  In  June,  1917,  36,000  acres  were  actually  irri- 
gated, and  the  area  is  now  increasing  at  the  rate  of 
'about  500  acres  per  month.  Irrigation  is  carried 
on  every  day  in  the  year,  and  the  elevation  of  the  ir- 
rigable area  varies  from  100  to  300  feet  above  sea- 
level.  The  average  annual  rainfall  for  sixteen  years 
is  3.62  inches. 

The  farm  unit  for  land  in  private  ownership  on 
the  Yuma  Project  is  160  acres,  but  where  land  is 
taken  up  under  the  Homestead  Act,  the  unit  is  40 
acres. 

At  present  there  are  no  public  lands  available  for 
entry  in  the  Yuma  Valley,  or  the  Indian  Reservation 
on  the  California  side  of  the  Colorado  River.  The 
irrigation  of  the  Yuma  Mesa,  where  the  lands  are 
considered  to  be  adapted  principally  to  citrus  and 
other  fruits,  is  provided  for  by  a  recent  Act  of  Con- 
gress whereby  the  public  lands  are  to  be  sold  and 
the  money  so  raised  used  in  the  construction  of  the 
necessary  pumping  plants  and  distributing  system. 
The  Reclamation  Service  is  now  working  out  the 
plans  for  this  project,  but  the  date  of  the  sale  of  the 
lands  and  the  time  when  water  will  be  available  for 
their  irrigation  are  still  indefinite.  Provision  is  also 


THE  AMERICAN  NILE  101 

made  to  take  in  what  private  lands  lie  within  the 
areas  of  the  proposed  pumping  units. 

Privately  owned  lands  in  the  Yuma  Valley  may  be 
purchased,  and  information  as  to  terms  and  prices 
can  be  obtained  from  the  Yuma  County  Commercial 
Club  at  Yuma,  Arizona,  who  will  also  supply  names 
of  dealers.  Seventy-five  dollars  an  acre  is  about 
the  minimum  price  for  which  uncultivated  lands  can 
be  had,  and  at  this  figure  the  location  would  neces- 
sarily be  some  distance  down  the  valley  from  the 
town  of  Yuma.  For  lands  near  the  town  much 
higher  prices  prevail,  rising  with  improvements  and 
location.  It  is  estimated  that  the  average  expendi- 
ture will  not  run  much  under  seventy-five  dollars  per 
acre  for  getting  raw  land  into  alfalfa.  This  would 
include  clearing,  levelling,  bordering,  and  planting. 
Other  classes  of  cultivation  will  vary  in  accordance 
with  the  crop  desired,  running  from  pasture  to  or- 
chards, and  the  "personal  f actor  "  of  the  rancher  will 
always  enter  largely  into  the  cost. 

A  "Warrenite"  (macadam  and  asphalt)  highway 
has  been  completed  from  the  town  of  Yuma  down  to 
Somerton,  fifteen  miles  below,  and  this,  with  what 
service  can  be  supplied  by  the  Yuma  Valley  (Gov- 
ernment-owned) Railroad  down  the  levee  on  the  west 
side  of  the  valley,  should  not  be  overlooked  when  con- 
sidering the  cost  of  hauling  products  to  Yuma.  Cars 
coming  up  on  the  Yuma  Valley  Railroad  can  be 
switched  directly  onto  the  main  line  of  the  Southern 
Pacific  for  carrying  to  their  final  destination,  and  a 
great  deal  of  hauling  by  motor  truck  on  the  Somerton 
highway  is  now  facilitating  transportation. 

The  cost  which  the  rancher  must  repay  for  Govern- 


102        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

merit  construction  in  the  Yuma  Valley  unit  was  re- 
cently announced  as  $75  per  acre.  The  cost  for  wa- 
ter is  75  cents  per  acre-foot  (1  acre  covered  to  a 
depth  of  1  foot)  and  about  5  acre-feet  per  year  will 
be  used  to  each  acre  of  land.  In  making  the  con- 
struction payments  a  period  of  twenty  years  may  be 
taken,  or  the  farmer  may  pay  up  sooner  if  he  so  de- 
sires. These  figures  may  appear  to  be  high  to  one 
not  initiated  into  the  practice  of  irrigation,  but  when 
it  is  borne  in  mind  that  from  five  to  seven  cuttings  of 
alfalfa  hay  may  be  taken  from  the  land  during  one 
year,  and  that  great  concentration  in  the  raising  of 
all  other  crops  in  like  proportion  may  be  carried  on 
for  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  days  in  the  year,  the 
per-acre  charge  ought  to  fade  away  on  its  side  of  the 
ledger  if  the  landowner  combines  good  farm  man- 
agement with  plenty  of  hard  work.  Besides  this,  the 
long  period  of  twenty  years  that  may  be  consumed 
in  paying  up  the  charge  is  carried  by  the  United 
States  Government  without  any  burden  of  interest; 
or,  to  look  at  it  from  the  banker's  view-point,  the 
Government  allows  the  farmer  to  pay  back  interest 
at  an  average  rate  of  only  five  per  cent,  a  year  for 
twenty  years,  and  then  makes  him  a  present  of  the 
principal. 

The  present  Project  Manager  is  W.  W.  Schlecht, 
with  office  at  Yuma,  Arizona. 


CHAPTEE  VIII 

GROWING  ORANGES  UNDER  THE   SHADOW    OF   MT. 
SHASTA.      THE  ORLAND  PROJECT,  CALIFORNIA 

California  has  been  known  ever  since  the  days  of 
gold  as  the  state  of  romance.  Eomantic  in  its  Span- 
ish Missions,  when  the  Franciscan  friars  planted  the 
olive,  the  vine,  and  the  orange ;  in  its  wonderful  gold 
rush,  which  made  it  the  mecca  of  thousands  of  gold- 
seekers  from  almost  every  country  under  the  sun ;  in 
its  cowboy  epoch,  when  cattle  were  its  dominant  in- 
dustry ;  in  its  agricultural  and  horticultural  develop- 
ment, when  it  was  found  that,  given  water,  its  soil 
was  productive  beyond  the  ordinary  thoughts  of  or- 
dinary men ;  in  its  alluring  attractiveness  to  the  tour- 
ist pleasure-lover,  and  health-seeker;  in  its  moun- 
tains, lakes,  canyon-valleys  like  the  Yosemite,  sea- 
side resorts,  and  islands ;  in  its  hunting,  fishing  and 
other  sports;  in  its  outdoor  recreations;  in  its  ex- 
quisite flower  displays  and  the  glory  they  confer  upon 
its  homes — these,  and  a  score  of  other  features,  have 
added  to  the  romantic  reputation  of  California 
throughout  the  world. 

In  its  rise  into  prominence  as  a  place  of  fruit  cul- 
ture certain  far-seeing  men  of  later  days  took  note 
of  the  fact  that  the  orange,  planted  by  the  Mission 
Fathers,  in  certain  parts  of  the  state,  seemed  to  have 
thriven  abundantly.  They  began  to  experiment  with 
it,  therefore,  as  a  horticultural  possibility.  Well  do 
1  remember — one  of  the  first  things  I  ever  saw  in  San 

103 


104       EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

Francisco — the  unloading  of  a  vessel  at  one  of  the 
wharves  there,  possibly  from  Hawaii,  the  chief  bur- 
den of  which  was  oranges.  Many  of  the  boxes  were 
opened  on  the  wharf  and  sorted,  the  rotten  fruit 
being  thrown  aside.  To  my  surprise  certain  men 
took  the  seeds  from  these  rotten  oranges,  washed  and 
then  sacked  them  with  the  evident  intent  of  using 
them.  Afterwards  I  learned  that  they  were  sent  to 
Eiverside — which  had  been  established  a  few  years 
earlier — and  there  planted,  thus  beginning  the  grow- 
ing of  seedling  oranges  for  the  markets  of  California. 

Then  by  a  fortuitous  concomitance  of  circum- 
stances a  Eiverside  orange-grower  received  six 
navel-orange  trees  that  had  come  to  the  Agricultural 
Department,  at  Washington,  from  Bahia,  Brazil. 
From  these  six  trees  sprang  the  Eiverside  Washing- 
ton navel-orange  industry,  there  now  being  millions 
of  trees  of  this  variety  in  California  and  Arizona, 
all  of  which  are  descended  from  these  original  six 
trees.  Two  of  these,  by  the  way,  are  still  in  exist- 
ence, in  Eiverside. 

Oranges  thus  became  recognized  as  a  regular  crop 
of  the  southern  part  of  the  state  of  California,  and 
soon  lemons  and  grape-fruit  were  added  to  the  list. 
But  it  was  early  discovered  that  citrus  fruits  could 
not  endure  much  frost,  hence  it  was  deemed  that  the 
only  region  in  which  they  could  successfully  be 
grown,  without  risk  from  frost,  was  south  of  the 
Tehachapi  range,  and  even  there  only  in  certain 
"thermal  belts." 

This  supposedly  natural  allotment  for  the  sphere 
of  citrus  culture  was  accepted  as  final  by  the  ma- 
jority of  people,  but,  thank  God,  there  are  always  a 


UNDEE  MT.  SHASTA'S  SHADOW   105 

few  minds  who  refuse  to  accept  popular  conclusions, 
and  who  question,  test,  experiment.  Some  of  these 
tried  the  planting  of  oranges  and  lemons  in  the  foot- 
hills of  the  southern  end  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley. 
Others,  a  little  later,  were  tempted  to  test  them  fur- 
ther north,  and  in  most  cases  with  success.  A  few 
more  daring  ones  were  satisfied  that  a  thermal  belt, 
where  frost  was  unknown,  existed  in  the  upper  end 
of  the  Sacramento  Valley,  and  they  planted  orange 
groves  there,  which,  to  the  surprise  of  those  who  did 
not  know  the  climatic  facts,  thrived  abundantly  and 
brought  good  profit  to  their  owners. 

Then  there  came  a  few  seasons  of  destructive  frost 
in  Southern  California.  Citrus  orchards  lost  mil- 
lions of  pounds  of  fruit,  and  although  there  were 
comparatively  few  trees  that  were  ruined,  many 
growers  lost  so  much  fruit  that  their  incomes  were 
seriously  impaired.  By  this  time  the  tests  in  the 
Sacramento  Valley  had  proved  so  successful  that  one 
grower  sold  out  his  Eiverside  groves,  and  began  the 
planting  out  of  five  thousand  acres  of  oranges,  grape- 
fruit and  lemons  in  the  foothills  of  the  Sacramento 
Valley. 

A  few  years  prior  to  this  time  the  Eeclamation 
Service  had  determined  to  establish  an  irrigation 
project  in  California.  The  choice  of  location  fell 
upon  the  upper  portion  of  the  Sacramento  Valley — 
as  its  lands  are  semi-arid — in  Glenn  County,  near  to 
the  town  of  Orland.  This  used  to  be  the  centre  of 
one  of  the  greatest  grain-growing  areas  in  Califor- 
nia, heavy  crops  of  wheat  and  barley  being  produced 
annually,  the  rainfall  occurring  mainly  in  the  winter 
months,  and  averaging  about  seventeen  inches  per 


106       EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

year.  But  in  due  time  the  soil  became  exhausted 
through  the  growing  of  a  single  crop,  until  grain- 
growing  was  no  longer  profitable,  and  the  farmers' 
attention  perforce  was  turned  in  some  other  direc- 
tion. 

In  the  early  days  of  American  occupancy  the  whole 
of  this  region  used  to  be  owned  by  a  few  men  who 
refused  to  part  with  any  portion  of  their  holdings.  A 
better  day,  however,  finally  dawned,  either  when 
these  men  died,  or  were  blessed  by  a  change  of  heart, 
and  the  large  ranches  began  to  be  subdivided  and  sold 
at  reasonable  prices,  so  that  men  of  ordinary  means 
might  come  in  and  establish  farms  and  homes  here. 

The  necessity  for  irrigation  was  realized  as  far 
back  as  the  '80s  and  an  irrigation  district  was  formed 
under  the  State  law,  but  no  work  was  done,  because 
of  inability  to  finance  the  undertaking.  Later  the 
Stony  Creek  Irrigation  Company  was  incorporated, 
dug  a  few  miles  of  canal  and  irrigated,  through  a 
portion  of  each  summer,  about  150  acres  of  land  in 
and  around  the  town  of  Orland.  Also  the  Lemon 
Home  Water,  Power  and  Light 'Company,  which  had 
laid  out  a  colony  near  the  Tehama  County  line,  built 
a  short  canal  for  the  purpose  of  irrigating  the  lands 
of  the  expected  colonists,  and  those  of  one  or  two 
of  the  old  residents  in  the  section  traversed  by  the 
Company's  ditch.  The  colonists,  however,  did  not 
materialize  and  the  irrigation  service  of  both  com- 
panies was  only  partial,  lasting  through  the  early 
summer  only  and  failing  at  midsummer  when  the 
heat  and  the  need  of  water  were  greatest. 

The  source  of  water  supply  is  Stony  Creek,  a  very 
considerable  tributary  of  the  Sacramento  Eiver,  and 


UNDER  MT.  SHASTA'S  SHADOW   107 

one  of  the  largest  streams  emptying  into  the  Sacra- 
mento from  the  west  side  of  the  valley.  It  dis- 
charges a  large  volume  of  water  during  the  season 
of  its  greatest  flow  and  at  times  is  a  raging  torrent, 
but  it  dwindles  rapidly  as  soon  as  the  rains  cease  and 
by  July  1st  is  usually  entirely  dry  at  Orland. 

The  U.  S.  Geological  Survey  had  located  several 
reservoir  sites  along  Stony  Creek  and  its  tributaries 
but  the  people  were  too  poor,  too  sceptical,  and  too 
discouraged  to  make  use  of  them  and,  at  that  time, 
private  capital  had  steadfastly  declined  to  see  oppor- 
tunities for  profitable  investment  in  the  Sacramento 
Valley.  Under  these  circumstances  a  few  of  the  peo- 
ple in  the  vicinity  of  Orland,  with  the  assistance  of 
the  Sacramento  Valley  Development  Association, 
took  action  looking  toward  the  construction  of  a  Gov- 
ernment project  under  the  Reclamation  Act. 

In  the  year  1905  the  owners  of  40,000  acres  of  land 
signed  an  agreement  to  accept  and  be  bound  by  the 
terms  of  the  Reclamation  Act  and  to  sell  off  their 
holdings  in  excess  of  160  acres  in  tracts  of  not  to 
exceed  forty  acres>  and  in  February,  1906,  a  Water 
Users'  Association  was  formed  and  duly  incorpor- 
ated and  presented  a  petition  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior,  reciting  the  facts  regarding  the  fertility  of 
the  soil,  the  favourable  climatic  conditions,  and  the 
advantages  offered  to  settlers,  and  asking  that  the 
surveys  along  Stony  Creek  be  completed  and  for  the 
early  construction  of  an  irrigation  project  in  the 
vicinity  of  Orland. 

A  surveying  party  and  diamond  drill  outfit  were 
put  into  the  field  in  July,  1906,  and  continued  at  work 
until  the  following  November. 


108        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

In  November,  1906,  a  board  of  engineers  recom- 
mended the  construction  of  the  Orland  project  under 
certain  conditions,  and  the  Orland  Unit  Water  Users ' 
Association  at  once  reorganized  to  meet  the  new  con- 
ditions. 

To  provide  the  required  storage  the  reservoir  site 
at  East  Park  in  Colusa. County,  California,  was  se- 
lected and  designs  w*ere  prepared  for  a  concrete  dam 
90  feet  in  height  above  stream  bed  on  Little  Stony 
Creek  at  a  point  about  three  miles  above  its  conflu- 
ence with  the  main  stream,  to  impound  46,000  acre- 
feet  of  water  for  use  after  the  failure  of  the  natural 
flow  of  Stony  Creek  in  the  midsummer  of  each.  The 
water,  when  discharged  from  the  reservoir,  was  to 
follow  the  bed  of  Little  Stony  and  Stony  Creeks  to 
Miller  B'uttes,  a  distance  of  41  miles,  and  to  be  di- 
verted at  the  poitft  where  the  creek  breaks  through 
the  foothills  and  begins  its  flow  southeastwardly 
through  the  valley  toward  the  Sacramento  Eiver,  the 
diversion  to  be  accomplished  by  a  low  concrete  dam 
at  Miller  Buttes  into  the  South  Canal  whence  it  is 
distributed  to  that  part  of  the  project  lying  south  of 
Stony  Creek.  A  diverting  weir  for  the  North  Canal 
was  also  contemplated  but  its  location  was  not  fixed 
at  this  time. 

Meantime  an  office  had  been  established  at  Orland 
and  Mr.  T.  H.  Humphreys  was  placed  in  charge  as 
Project  Engineer.  The  work  of  securing  the  lands 
necessary  for  the  reservoir  was  pushed  actively  (val- 
uable aid  being  rendered  by  the  officers  of  the  Water 
Users'  Association)  and  about  4,000  acres  were  pur- 
chased. 

In  the  spring  of  1909  work  was  begun  on  the  East 


UNDER  MT.  SHASTA'S  SHADOW   109 

Park  Dam,  and  with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  brief 
interruptions  on  account  of  high  water,  it  continued 
until  it  was  completed  June  15,  1910.  This  dam  is 
located  in  a  gorge  of  conglomerate,  is  built  of  con- 
crete and  is  on  a  radius  of  275  feet.  It  is  139  feet 
high  above  foundation  and  has  a  top  length  of  250 
feet.  It  is  ten  feet  thick  at  the  top,  and  86  feet  at 
the  base.  Twenty  feet  above  the  bed  of  the  river 
is  a  circular  conduit  which  constitutes  the  main  out- 
let. This  is  controlled  by  two  sluice-gates  each  4x5 
feet,  set  in  tandem,  seven  feet  apart  on  opposite  sides 
of  a  gate  tower.  Originally  the  dam  had  a  storage 
capacity  of  46,000  acre-feet,  but  it  is  now  increased 
to  51,000  acre-feet. 

The  spillway  is  located  in  a  saddle  about  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  from  the  dam.  It  is  a  concrete  structure 
founded  on  hard  shale.  It  is  a  weir  consisting  of 
nine  semi-circular  arches  resting  against  piers  eight 
feet  wide.  The  arches  have  a  radius  of  13%  feet, 
and  the  whole  structure  is  curved  to  a  radius  of  474 
feet,  its  total  length  being  415  feet.  It  is  designed 
for  a  capacity  of  10,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  with  a 
depth  of  overflow  of  3.7  feet.  A  water  cushion  is 
formed  by  a  series  of  small  weirs  two  feet  high  on 
radii  of  29  feet,  built  down- stream  from  the  main 
weir. 

The  acreage  included  in  the  project  which  it  was 
supposed  could  readily  be  irrigated  from  the  dam 
amounted  to  14,300  acres.  But  for  two  successive 
seasons  after  the  project  was  opened,  the  run-off  into 
the  reservoir  fell  far  short  of  the  capacity — in  one 
year  to  about  one-fourth,  and  the  next  to  a  little  over 
one-third.  Something  must  be  done,  and  done  in- 


110        KECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

stantly,  to  provide  against  the  disaster  of  water 
shortage.  Fortunately  all  the  acreage  was  not  call- 
ing for  water.  It  was  decided  to  build  a  feed  canal 
from  Big  Stony  Creek  to  the  reservoir,  a  distance  of 
seven  miles,  and  to  increase  the  storage  capacity  by 
5,000  acre-feet,  by  building  the  spillway  three  feet 
higher.  These  improvements  were  carried  out  in 
1914. 

The  diversion  dam  for  this  feed  canal  is  a  con- 
crete arch  built  to  a  radius  of  100  feet,  with  a  crest 
length  of  154  feet,  and  a  maximum  height  of  44  feet. 
Its  greatest  thickness  is  six  and  one-half  feet,  and 
this  diminishes  to  three  and  one-half  feet  near  the 
top.  The  crest  of  the  dam  is  curved  down-stream  in 
vertical  section,  in  order  that  the  overflow  may  fall 
free  from  the  dam  and  cause  no  vacuum. 

The  system  contemplates  the  delivery  of  water 
directly  to  every  40-acre  unit  through  138  miles  of 
Government  canals  and  laterals,  and  when  com- 
pleted will  contain  2,000  concrete  control  structures 
of  various  kinds. 

Beginning  in  October,  1909,  the  South  Main  Canal 
(the  old  Stony  Creek  Irrigation  Company's  ditch) 
was  rebuilt  from  Hambright  Creek,  some  five  miles 
northwest  of  the  town  of  Orland,  to  its  terminus  on 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  town,  31  reinforced 
concrete  drops  were  constructed  and  the  necessary 
bridges  and  siphons  to  carry  the  canal  under  the 
country  road  at  the  two  or  three  points  of  crossing 
were  built. 

The  first  Government  irrigation  was  in  the  season 
of  1910,  in  which  year  water  was  furnished  to  500 
acres  of  land  mostly  in  and  contiguous  to  the  town  of 


DIVERSION  DAM  AND  DITCH 
ORLAND  PROJECT,  CALIFORNIA 


EAST  PARK  DAM,  DOWNSTREAM  FACE — HEIGHT  127  FEET, 

LENGTH  OF  CREST  220  FEET 

ORLAND  PROJECT,  CALIFORNIA 


UNDEE  MT.  SHASTA'S  SHADOW      111 

Orland  and  largely  land  which  had  formerly  been 
served  by  the  old  company  ditches.  As  the  East 
Park  dam  was  not  finished  until  June  there  was  no 
stored  water  available  and  irrigation  was  continued 
only  until  the  natural  flow  of  Stony  Creek  failed, 
which  was  during  the  month  of  July. 

The  beginning  of  irrigation  in  1911  was  delayed 
about  two  weeks  by  a  flood  following  a  torrential  rain 
on  March  5th.  The  creeks  were  out  of  their  banks 
and,  for  a  time,  a  large  volume  of  Hambright  Creek 
was  pouring  into  the  South  Canal  and  overflowing 
into  the  county  road  and  over  the  contiguous  prop- 
erty. The  South  Canal,  designed  to  carry  a  maxi- 
mum of  150  second-feet,  was  receiving  from  Ham- 
bright  Creek  about  260  second-feet  for  several  hours 
and  it  stood  the  strain  successfully,  both  in  its  banks 
and  structures,  little  damage  being  done.  At  the 
headworks  the  flood  had  piled  up  the  gravel  in  the 
sluiceway  and  before  the  gates  and  had  entirely  filled 
the  channel  on  the  south  side  of  Stony  Creek  so  it 
became  necessary  to  clear  away  the  deposits  before 
the  gates  and  excavate  a  channel  to  bring  the  water 
over  the  intake. 

The  South  Main  Canal,  as  it  was  purchased  from 
the  Stony  Creek  Irrigation  Company,  descended 
nearly  35  feet  in  the  three  miles  above  the  Ham- 
bright  Creek  crossing,  a  fall  which  would  produce 
too  high  velocity  for  the  amount  of  water  necessary 
to  irrigate  the  project.  This  necessitated  rebuilding 
the  canal  and  the  construction  of  a  number  of  very 
expensive  concrete  structures  would  have  been  nec- 
essary to  reduce  the  velocity.  As  an  alternative  it 
was  decided  to  build  a  new  canal  along  a  higher  level 


112        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

— a  canal  that  would  require  no  drops  whatever  and 
would,  besides,  provide  a  power  site  at  its  lower  end 
should  a  power  plant  become  desirable.  A  line  was 
located  along  the  hillside,  the  right  of  way  secured 
at  a  cost  of  $1,350,  and  advertisement  inviting 
proposals  for  its  construction  issued  on  August  1, 
1910. 

In  due  time  this  was  completed  and  is  now  in  suc- 
cessful operation.  At  the  outlet  of  this  canal  there 
is  available  for  future  hydro-electric  development 
not  less  than  450  horse-power.  As  the  city  of  Orland 
grows  this  power  will  undoubtedly  be  called  for. 

Before  the  authorization  of  the  Orland  Project  the 
land  was  worth  comparatively  little.  In  favourable 
seasons  a  small  crop  of  grain  could  be  grown  on  a 
part  of  what  is  now  included  in  the  project  limits, 
but  for  the  most  part  the  fields  lay  idle.  The  coun- 
try was  sparsely  settled,  only  an  occasional  ranch 
house  surrounded  by  a  small  grove  of  trees  breaking 
the  monotony  of  the  level  plain — a  thirsty  land  cry- 
ing for  water  to  make  it  fertile.  The  town  of  Orland 
was  a  collection  of  more  or  less  dilapidated  wooden 
stores  which,  leaning  against  one  another  for  sup- 
port, expressed  the  discouragement  felt  by  the  peo- 
ple. The  short  irrigation  season  afforded  by  the  old 
companies  which  supplied  but  about  150  acres  had 
done  little  more  than  demonstrate  what  might  be 
accomplished  with  a  full  season  and  plenty  of  water. 
As  soon  as  the  project  was  assured,  things  began  to 
move ;  prospective  settlers  began  to  make  inquiries, 
the  price  of  land  went  up  with  a  bound  from  $15  and 
$20  per  acre  to  $50,  $60,  $75,  and  in  the  course  of 
three  years  to  $125  and  $150.  The  real  estate  men 


UNDEK  MT.  SHASTA'S  SHADOW   113 

were  kept  busy  selling  farms  to  the  people  who  came 
in,  land  was  levelled,  houses  were  built,  and  a  general 
air  of  prosperity  prevailed. 

In  the  town,  where  the  improvement  was  first 
shown,  the  changes  were  extraordinary.  In  one 
year  (1909-10)  $100,000  was  invested  in  new  busi- 
ness buildings;  most  of  the  old  unpainted  ram- 
shackle buildings  were  torn  down  and  replaced  by 
modern  structures  of  concrete  and  the  business  part 
of  the  town,  six  years  after  the  beginning  of  active 
work  on  the  project,  presents  blocks  of  well  built  re- 
inforced concrete  buildings  with  modern  plate  glass 
fronts  quite  in  metropolitan  style.  More  than  two 
hundred  new  residences  have  been  built,  mostly  of 
the  attractive  bungalow  type,  and  the  town,  though 
somewhat  scattered,  has  taken  on  a  "  smart "  aspect 
unusual  in  new  communities. 

In  the  country  the  development  has  been  none  the 
less  marked.  New  cottages  have  sprung  up  in  all 
directions  and  large  barns  have  been  built  to  shelter 
the  horses  and  dairy  cattle  which  have  been  brought 
in;  fields  of  alfalfa  show  vividly  green  where  for- 
merly the  yellow  burned-up  native  vegetation  held 
full  sway,  and  young  orange,  almond  and  other  fruit 
trees  are  flourishing;  the  lowing  of  cattle  and  the 
cackling  of  hens  have  taken  the  place  of  the  erstwhile 
silence  and  the  voice  of  chanticleer  is  heard  in  the 
land.  The  value  of  improvements  on  irrigated  lands 
in  1910  was  $25,000.  Today  the  valuation  conserva- 
tively is  estimated  at  $875,000. 

The  project  was  opened  by  public  notice  on  the 
24th  of  May,  1916.  It  now  contains  over  20,000  acres 
of  irrigable  land,  about  14,000  acres  of  which  are  now 


114        KECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

(1917)  under  irrigation.  Over  600  applications  for 
water  right  have  been  received  up  to  date,  covering 
17,000  acres. 

In  the  last  eight  or  ten  months  fully  a  hundred 
new  settlers  have  been  added,  most  of  whom  are 
developing  their  holdings.  The  dairy  business  has 
increased  in  a  remarkable  manner.  In  1911  there 
were  perhaps  125  head  of  indifferent  milk  cows  to 
be  found.  Today  there  are  more  than  4,000,  and  70 
per  cent,  are  of  graded  and  pedigreed  stock.  There 
are  two  creameries  in  active  operation,  which  are 
paying  out  about  $45,000  a  month  for  butter  fat,  and 
this  means  prosperity  for  the  farmers.  In  addition 
the  orange  industry  has  thriven  beyond  all  expecta- 
tions. In  1916  twelve  car-loads  were  shipped  east, 
these  being  the  first  carload  shipments  ever  effected, 
and  as  other  orchards  come  into  bearing  the  output 
will  materially  increase.  And,  as  has  elsewhere  been 
shown,  these  oranges  ripening  so  early,  reach  the 
eastern  markets  ahead  of  those  shipped  from  other 
parts  of  California,  and  win  the  heaviest  prices. 

While  unimproved  land  valuations  have  scarcely 
increased  since  1913,  viz.,  $100  to  $150  per  acre,  there 
has  been  a  very  beneficial  change  in  the  method  of 
placing  them  in  the  hands  of  settlers.  Instead  of 
requiring  a  payment  of  half  or  more  down,  as  was 
done  in  earlier  days,  a  payment  of  ten  or  twenty-five 
per  cent,  is  expected,  with  no  other  payments  for 
three  to  five  years,  except  taxes  and  interest.  Then 
the  balance  may  be  paid  in  four  or  five  more  years. 
In  this  way  the  settler  is  given  full  opportunity  to  get 
fairly  well  established  before  full  payment  for  his 
land  is  exacted.  The  building  cost  of  the  project  has 


UNDER  MT.  SHASTA'S  SHADOW   115 

been  fixed  at  $44  per  acre,  with  the  twenty  year  pe- 
riod for  paying  it  in. 

As  a  result  of  these  favourable  conditions  the  town 
of  Orland  has  rapidly  grown.  From  a  population  of 
about  600  in  1910,  it  now  (1917)  has  fully  3,500. 

On  the  occasion  of  the  opening  of  the  project  it  was 
my  pleasure  to  give  the  main  address.  By  an  unfor- 
tunate concomitance  of  circumstances  the  representa- 
tive of  Congress,  the  Governor  of  the  State,  and  the 
district  engineer  were  all  prevented  from  being  pres- 
ent, and  by  an  equally  peculiar  but  fortuitous  con- 
comitance, they  each  invited  me  to  act  in  their  stead. 
So  I  had  the  weighty  responsibilities  and  honours  of 
Congress,  the  Governorship,  and  scientific  engineer- 
ing to  uphold,  not  only  in  the  address  that  was  de- 
livered to  a  great  throng  that  had  assembled  from  all 
the  surrounding  country,  but  in  observing  what  the 
Service  had  accomplished  for  the  benefit  of  the 
region.  Perhaps  it  was  to  this  combined  weight  of 
responsibility  that  I  owe  my  ever-growing  reverence 
and  respect  for  the  helpful  work  the  Service  is  ac- 
complishing. For  ever  since  those  days  spent  in 
studying  the  Orland  Project  I  have  been  more  eager 
than  ever  to  see  all  the  other  projects,  and  as  I  have 
studied  them  in  their  wonderfully  varied  detail  my 
respect  and  reverence  for  those  who  have  created 
them,  as  well  as  my  pride  and  patriotism,  have 
grown. 

The  present  Project  Manager  is  A.  N.  Burch,  with 
offices  at  Orland,  California. 


CHAPTEE  IX 

WHEEE    INDIANS    ONCE    ROAMED.      THE    GRAND    VALLEY 
PROJECT,    COLORADO 

The  irrigation  plan  of  the  Grand  Valley  Project 
provides  for  the  diversion  of  water  from  the  Grand 
Kiver  by  a  dam  about  eight  miles  northeast  of  Pali- 
sade, Colorado,  into  a  canal  system  on  the  north  side 
of  the  river,  for  the  irrigation  of  lands  lying  north 
and  west  of  Grand  Junction,  Fruita,  and  Mack,  Colo- 
rado. About  42,750  acres  will  be  supplied  by  grav- 
ity and  10,250  by  pumping  plants  to  be  located  along 
the  main  canal. 

The  Grand  Eiver  has  its  source  among  the  high 
peaks  of  the  Front  Eange  in  the  north  central  part 
of  Colorado.  Flowing  in  a  generally  southwesterly 
direction  through  Middle  Park,  it  enters  the  Gore 
Canyon  near  Kremmling  and  from  here  to  Palisade 
is  confined  between  canyon  walls  for  the  greater  part 
of  its  length.  At  Palisade  the  canyon  walls  recede 
and  the  river  enters  the  Grand  Valley  where  is  pre- 
sented the  only  opportunity  along  the  entire  course 
of  the  river  for  extensive  diversion  of  its  water  for 
irrigation.  Flowing  through  the  valley  for  a  dis- 
tance of  30  miles,  it  again  enters  a  canyon,  continuing 
its  course  to  its  intersection  with  the  Green  Eiver  in 
Utah.  From  Palisade,  to  a  point  near  Cisco,  Utah, 
the  valley  is  about  100  miles  in  length  and  varies 
from  two  to  twelve  miles  in  width.  Just  east  of  the 
Colorado-Utah  line,  the  valley  is  divided  by  a  high 

116 


WHEEE  INDIANS  ONCE  EOAMED     117 

ridge  traversing  it  from  north  to  south,  known  as  the 
Excelsior  Divide.  For  a  long  time  it  was  considered 
that  it  might  be  feasible  to  carry  water  through  this 
ridge  by  means  of  a  tunnel  or  deep  cut  to  water  the 
Utah  lands,  but  investigation  showed  the  land  on  the 
Utah  side  to  be  200  feet  higher  than  that  on  the  Colo- 
rado side,  and  that  the  Utah  lands  could  not  be 
reached  without  pumping. 

The  Grand  Valley  Project,  therefore,  was  planned 
to  include  only  those  lands  in  the  State  of  Colorado 
lying  east  of  the  Excelsior  Divide,  and  the  term 
Grand  Valley  includes  that  part  of  the  valley  between 
the  mouth  of  the  canyon  at  Palisade  and  the  Excel- 
sior Divide,  about  three  miles  east  of  the  Utah  line. 

It  was  estimated  that  the  total  area  of  land  in  this 
valley  susceptible  of  irrigation  would  be  about  118,- 
000  acres.  The  elevation  of  the  Grand  Eiver  at  the 
mouth  of  the  canyon  is  such  that  only  40,000  acres,  all 
on  the  north  side  of  the  river,  can  be  covered  by  grav- 
ity ditches  starting  at  this  point.  This  acreage  was 
naturally  the  first  to  be  developed  and  is  all  under 
irrigation  from  the  canal  of  the  Grand  Valley  Irri- 
gation Company.  To  cover  the  remaining  78,000 
acres,  an  additional  elevation  of  100  feet  had  to  be 
gained.  To  do  this  it  was  decided  to  use  a  gravity 
canal  diverting  from  the  north  side  of  the  Grand 
Eiver  and  beginning  at  a  point  far  enough  up  the 
canyon  to  permit  the  use  of  a  low  diversion  dam. 
This  gravity  canal  would  also  supply  water  to  elec- 
trically driven  pumping  plants  to  supply  six  sepa- 
rate areas  of  excellent  land  lying  above  the  canal. 

Prior  to  1881,  the  Grand  Valley  was  included,  with 
the  larger  part  of  Western  Colorado,  in  the  old  Ute 


118        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

Indian  Eeservation,  and  the  little  that  was  known  of 
it  before  that  time  was  gained  from  the  meagre  re- 
ports of  the  more  hardy  pioneers,  hunters,  and  trap- 
pers, and  from  information  obtained  by  the  Hayden 
expedition.  Beall,  one  of  the  geologists  of  this  expe- 
dition, describes  this  section  of  the  country  as  "for 
the  most  part  a  desert,  covered  with  a  sparse  growth 
of  stunted  sage  brush,  which  grows  in  a  stiff  alkaline 
soil  made  from  the  debris  washed  from  the  Book 
Cliffs,"  and  this  opinion  prevailed  for  years. 

In  August,  1881,  the  Indians  were  removed  to  the 
Uintah  reservation  in  Utah,  and  on  September  4th 
the  lands  in  the  Grand  Valley,  which  had  been  par- 
tially surveyed  during  the  summer,  were  thrown  open 
for  settlement.  Large  numbers  of  people  were  wait- 
ing in  the  frontier  towns,  and,  when  the  word  came, 
there  was  a  rush  of  settlers  seeking  to  secure  the  most 
desirable  lands.  In  a  short  time  the  city  of  Grand 
Junction  had  been  founded  and  all  the  lands  along 
the  north  side  of  the  river  taken  up,  these  lands  being 
the  most  desirable  since  they  could  be  more  readily 
brought  under  irrigation. 

Early  in  1882  work  was  commenced  on  the  first  ir- 
rigation ditches  in  the  valley,  and  four  were  built 
within  the  next  two  years.  In  1886  these  four  ditches 
were  consolidated  and  thereafter  operated  under  one 
management  as  the  Grand  Valley  Canal.  Meantime, 
the  development  of  the  valley  had  been  rapid,  and, 
in  1886,  it  was  estimated  that  10,000  acres  of  land 
were  under  cultivation.  "With  the  completion  of  the 
Grand  Valley  Canal,  all  of  the  lands  in  the  valley 
which  could  be  watered  at  a  low  cost,  comprising 
about  45,000  acres,  were  brought  under  ditch. 


WHEEE  INDIANS  ONCE  EOAMED     119 

From  this  time  until  the  passage  of  the  Eeclama- 
tion  Act  in  1902  a  large  number  of  survey  lines  were 
run  and  many  attempts  were  made  to  accomplish  the 
construction  of  the  so-called  High  Line  Canal  by  pri- 
vate enterprise.  The  apparently  unlimited  volume 
of  water  going  to  waste  annually  down  the  Grand 
Eiver,  and  the  thousands  of  acres  of  fertile  land 
awaiting  only  the  application  of  water  to  transform 
them  into  productive  orchards  and  farms,  made  the 
project  appear  very  attractive. 

While  favourable  conditions  were  reported  by  local 
engineers,  the  difficulties  seemed  to  be  too  great  for 
private  capital  to  overcome,  and  at  the  time  of  the 
passage  of  the  Eeclamation  Act  nothing  had  yet  been 
accomplished  toward  the  construction  of  the  High 
Line  Canal.  Immediately  after  the  approval  of  the 
Eeclamation  Act,  local  citizens  requested  the  exam- 
ination of  their  plans  looking  toward  its  construc- 
tion by  the  Eeclamation  Service. 

From  the  favourable  reports  which  had  been  made, 
the  project  appeared  worthy  of  consideration,  and 
steps  were  taken  at  once  to  place  a  party  in  the  field 
for  the  purpose  of  making  a  detailed  survey  of  the 
proposed  canal.  As  a  preliminary  to  the  field  exam- 
ination, the  lands  involved  were,  on  July  17,  1902, 
temporarily  withdrawn  from  entry  under  the  terms 
of  the  Eeclamation  Act. 

Before  sufficient  time  had  elapsed  to  allow  the 
Service  to  proceed  with  work  in  accordance  with  the 
results  of  this  examination,  representations  were 
made  to  the  Department  by  certain  citizens  of  Grand 
Junction,  and  others,  that  private  parties  were  de- 
sirous of  building  the  system.  Eelying  upon  the 


120       BECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

favourable  reports  made  by  the  engineers  of  the  Bee- 
lamation  Service,  to  secure  the  capital  necessary  to 
build  the  canal,  these  persons  saw  an  opportunity  to 
reap  promoters'  profits,  which  would  be  lost  if  the 
work  were  done  by  the  Government. 

At  that  time  the  principle  had  been  adopted  of  non- 
interference with  private  enterprise.  It  was  still 
popularly  believed  that  irrigation  investments  could 
and  should  be  made  a  source  of  individual  profit. 
The  people  as  a  whole  had  not  been  educated  to  see 
that  work  of  this  kind  could  not  be  a  safe  investment 
and  it  was  only  after  practically  every  large  private 
irrigation  project  had  become  bankrupt  that  this 
underlying  principle  was  recognized.  Under  these 
conditions  it  was  deemed  wise  for  the  Eeclamation 
Service  not  to  intrude  upon  what  then  appeared  to 
be  a  proper  field  of  private  or  corporate  effort,  and  to 
hold  off.  Had  this  not  been  done  there  would  always 
have  been  the  complaint  that  the  Government  had 
interfered  with  private  affairs  and  that  the  work 
could  have  been  done  cheaper  in  some  other  way. 
Doing  away  with  this  fallacy  was  possibly  worth  the 
loss  of  time  which  necessarily  ensued. 

During  four  years  of  waiting,  however,  nothing 
locally  was  accomplished  and  in  1907  the  Service  was 
again  urged  to  take  up  the  construction,  but  as  a 
great  deal  of  expensive  work  had  been  undertaken 
on  other  projects  by  this  time,  there  was  not  avail- 
able in  the  fund  a  sufficient  amount  for  any  large  ex- 
penditures such  as  the  Grand  Valley  plans  required, 
before  1910.  The  co-operative  plan  of  work  had 
been  inaugurated  shortly  before  this  time,  and  the 
idea  was  conceived  by  the  Water  Users'  Associa- 


WHEEE  INDIANS  ONCE  KOAMED     121 

tion  of  raising  a  sufficient  sum  to  enable  the  work  to 
proceed  with  more  rapidity.  Subscriptions  were  so- 
licited by  the  Association  and  in  October,  1908,  ap- 
proximately $125,000  had  been  subscribed  in  cash 
and  labour.  A  representative  of  the  Association  was 
sent  to  "Washington,  who  on  October  15,  secured  from 
the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  the  tentative  approval 
of  a  form  of  contract,  providing  for  the  early  com- 
mencement of  work  under  the  co-operative  plan. 

This  contract  provided  in  brief  that  the  Secretary 
should  allot  the  sum  of  $125,000  to  be  available  for 
expenditure  on  the  project  during  the  year  1909,  at 
the  same  rate  the  amounts  subscribed  by  the  Asso- 
ciation should  be  expended;  the  latter  amounts  to  be 
covered  by  co-operative  certificates  issued  by  the 
Department,  which  could  be  applied  at  their  face 
value  in  reduction  of  water  right  charges;  that  the 
allotment  of  $100,000  already  made  for  carrying  on 
the  work  during  1908  and  1909  should  be  available  in 
addition  to  the  new  allotment  of  $125,000 ;  that  after 
the  year  1909,  the  construction  of  the  project  should 
be  continued  by  expenditures  from  the  Eeclamation 
Fund  to  the  extent  that  money  should  be  found  avail- 
able. The  estimated  total  cost  of  the  project  as  then 
proposed  was  about  three  million  dollars. 

At  about  the  time  the  Eeclamation  Service  was 
ready  to  commence  operations  various  individuals 
again  made  representations  that  it  should  abandon 
the  project  and  leave  the  field  clear  for  private  en- 
terprise. The  favourable  conditions  which  existed 
at  that  time  in  the  market  for  irrigation  securities, 
together  with  the  standing  which  the  project  had 
attained  from  the  favourable  reports  of  the  Service 


122        BECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

engineers,  made  it  appear  to  be  a  very  attractive 
one  from  the  standpoint  of  the  promoter.  The  Wa- 
ter Users'  Association,  however,  protested  vigor- 
ously against  any  interruption  with  the  plans  of  the 
Service,  and,  in  1909,  construction  was  commenced. 
Work  on  the  camp  had  been  in  progress  only  a  few 
days  and  three  of  the  buildings  were  in  the  course  of 
erection,  when  telegraphic  orders  were  received  from 
Washington  to  suspend  all  work,  as  the  question  of 
the  legality  of  the  co-operative  contract  had  been 
raised.  On  June  2, 1909,  the  Attorney  General  ren- 
dered his  opinion,  now  a  matter  of  record,  declaring 
illegal  the  co-operative  plan  of  work  in  general,  and 
the  Grand  Valley  contract  as  executed  by  Secretary 
Garfield  in  particular. 

This  was  a  great  blow  and  from  1909  to  1912,  the 
program  for  the  Grand  Valley  Project  continued  to 
be  uncertain.  Then  the  Service  decided  to  under- 
take it.  Even  after  arrangements  were  successfully 
completed  for  financing  the  work,  much  time  was 
lost  because  of  the  difficulties  encountered  in  securing 
the  necessary  rights  of  way  at  a  reasonable  cost,  and 
in  reaching  a  decision  as  to  the  location  of  the  main 
canal. 

However,  matters  were  finally  adjusted,  and  con- 
struction commenced  during  the  fall  of  1912  on  the 
tunnels  for  the  main  canal,  and  the  next  year  prepa- 
rations for  the  construction  of  the  diversion  dam 
were  started.  Actual  work  on  the  dam  commenced 
August  27, 1913.  From  this  time  on,  work  on  the  en- 
tire project  was  pushed  rapidly,  and  by  the  end  of 
1916  the  diversion  dam  and  headworks  were  comple- 


IRRIGATION  AND  FARMING  ON  BENCH  LAND  NEAR  GRAND 

JUNCTION 
GRAND  VALLEY  PROJECT,  COLORADO 


MAIN   CANAL,   GRAND  RIVER 
GRAND  VALLEY  PROJECT,  COLORADO 


WHEEE  INDIANS  ONCE  EOAMED     123 

ted,  and  of  the  canal  system  there  remained  to  be  fin- 
ished only  the  last  seven  miles  of  the  main  canal,  lat- 
erals for  15,500  acres  in  the  second  and  third  lateral 
districts,  the  power  plant  and  pumping  system,  and 
such  drainage  and  flood-protection  works  as  may  be 
required. 

In  the  designing  and  construction  of  the  Grand 
Kiver  Dam  the  engineers  had  to  solve  the  problem  as 
to  how  they  should  raise  the  level  of  the  river  at  low 
stages  sufficiently  to  send  1,425  cubic  feet  of  water 
per  second  into  the  head  of  the  main  canal,  and  yet 
at  high  water  to  pass  a  flow  of  50,000  cubic  feet  per 
second  without  raising  the  water  level  to  a  point 
where  it  would  endanger  the  road-bed  of  the  Denver 
and  Kio  Grande  Eailway.  This  was  effected  by 
building  a  solid  concrete  weir,  surmounted  by  eight 
massive  piers  and  provided  with  seven  roller  crests 
for  regulating  the  height  of  back  water  at  the  canal 
intake.  Six  of  the  roller  crests  span  openings  70  feet 
long  between  piers  and  are  10  feet  3  inches  high. 
The  seventh  roller  is  60  feet  long,  15  feet  4  inches 
high,  and  it  regulates  the  flow  through  the  sluiceway 
in  front  of  the  canal  intake.  At  times  of  low  flow 
the  dam  diverts  the  full  flow  of  the  river,  part  of 
which,  however,  is  returned  through  the  power-plant 
at  the  lower  end  of  the  canyon  division.  Nine  gates, 
each  with  an  opening  seven  feet  square,  regulate  the 
flow  into  the  canal.  The  roller  crests  and  regulator 
gates  are  operated  by  electricity.  A  three-hinged 
arch  steel  service  bridge,  6  feet  in  width,  consisting 
of  seven  spans,  extends  the  full  length  of  the  dam. 
The  total  length  of  the  dam  between  abutments  is 


124       KECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

536.5  feet.  "When  the  rollers  are  closed  at  low  river 
stage,  it  raises  water  about  20  feet  above  the  general 
bed  of  the  river. 

A  peculiar  condition  was  found  to  exist  in  the  or- 
chard region  of  the  main  canal  near  Palisade,  which 
has  not  been  encountered  elsewhere.  As  soon  as  the 
land  is  soaked  with  water  it  subsides  from  one  to 
five  or  six  feet.  Where  the  irrigation  was  carelessly 
and  unevenly  done  the  subsidence  is  uneven,  and  in 
some  cases  a  line  of  clearly  marked  difference  of  sev- 
eral feet  was  formed  which  it  has  been  very  difficult 
to  overcome. 

The  soil  of  the  irrigable  area  is  sandy  loam,  and 
adobe ;  the  mesas  or  benches  are  admirably  adapted 
to  the  raising  of  fruit,  while  sugar  beets,  alfalfa, 
grain  and  vegetables  are  also  staples.  The  fruit  is 
shipped  widely,  even  to  the  faraway  cities  of  the 
East,  while  the  local  demand  absorbs  practically  all 
of  the  other  products. 

There  are  twenty  thousand  acres  of  public  lands 
on  this  project  which  will  be  opened  to  settlement 
under  the  terms  of  the  Eeclamation  Act,  probably  in 
1918. 

The  present  Project  Manager  is  S.  0.  Harper,  with 
offices  at  Grand  Junction,  Colorado. 


CHAPTEE  X 

'MID   THE   SNOWY   PEAKS   OF   THE   BOOKIES.      THE 
TJSTCOMPAHGRE   PROJECT,    COLORADO 

The  snow-clad  peaks  of  Colorado  always  have  had 
a  fascination  for  a  certain  class  of  minds.  Not  alone 
are  tourists,  world-travellers,  the  wealthy,  moved  to 
deep  emotion  at  the  sight  of  magnificent  mountain 
heights  that  aspire  starward,  and  catch  the  snows  of 
winter,  holding  them  until  the  warm  spring-time 
sends  them  in  dashing,  sparkling  torrents  through 
the  deep  canyons  into  the  placid  valleys  below. 
Many  a  poor  man,  even  though  he  be  a  "man  with  a 
hoe"  or  a  city  dweller,  thrills  with  deepest  emotion 
as  he  sees  such  peaks,  though  for  the  life  of  him  he 
could  not  express  his  feelings  in  words.  But  the 
allurement  is  there,  and  when  the  suggestion  of 
home-making  is  added  to  the  mountain  lure,  there  is 
little  wonder  that  men  of  this  type  flock  to  take  pos- 
session of  such  home  lands  as  are  offered.  Some- 
times it  is  the  wives  that  long  for  such  environment. 
Again,  of  course,  it  is  possible  that  men  seek  these 
locations  for  no  other  purpose  than  the  direct  and 
simple  one  of  making  money,  or  making  a  home. 
For,  whenever  there  are  great  mountain  peaks  and 
ranges  there  are  sure  to  be  extensive  valleys  where 
cattle  raising,  dairying,  and  farming  may  be  success- 
fully carried  on. 

In  western  Colorado,  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
Continental  Divide,  there  is  such  an  attractive  moun- 

125 


126       RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

tain  valley,  extending  from  northern  Delta  County, 
southward  through  Montrose  and  into  Ouray  County. 
The  Utah  state  line  is  nowhere  more  than  seventy- 
five  miles  distant,  and  the  area  has  an  extreme 
length  from  north  to  south  of  above  forty-five  miles 
and  a  maximum  width  of  about  fifteen  miles.  It 
contains  381  square  miles,  or  243,840  acres,  of  which 
about  100,000  are  comprised  within  the  Uncom- 
pahgre  Project  of  the  Reclamation  Service. 

The  area  is  bounded  on  the  west  and  southwest  by 
the  Uncompahgre  Plateau,  on  the  south  and  south- 
east by  the  San  Juan  Mountains,  and  on  the  east  and 
northeast  by  the  Cimarron  Ridge  and  Vernal  Mesa. 
Toward  the  northwest  is  the  continuation  of  the  val- 
ley. This  surrounding  high  land  ranges  in  eleva- 
tion from  8,000  to  14,000  feet  above  sea  level.  Mont- 
rose,  the  chief  town  on  the  project,  is  5,800  feet. 

There  are  five  physiographic  types  within  the  val- 
ley, namely,  1,  the  comparatively  narrow  alluvial 
belts  bordering  the  main  stream  channels;  2,  the 
broad  terraces,  representing  former  alluvial  plains  of 
the  same  streams;  3,  smooth  slopes,  alluvial  fans, 
and  broad,  smooth  coves  with  strong  downward 
slopes  around  the  heads  of  small  drainage  basins — 
this  type  occurs  exclusively  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Uncompahgre  River ;  4,  small,  usually  isolated,  hills 
of  shale  that  have  not  yet  been  reduced  to  grade 
level ;  and,  5,  remnants  of  former  alluvial  fans  which 
existed  when  the  valley  floor  was  a  few  hundred 
feet  higher  than  at  present.  It  is  the  three  first 
types  alone  that  are  irrigable,  and  are  included  in  the 
lands  of  the  project. 

The  area  was  a  part  of  the  reservation  occupied 


THE  SNOWY  PEAKS  OF  THE  EOCKIES  127 

by  Chief  Ouray's  band  of  Utes  prior  to  1881.  The 
Indians  cultivated  small  patches  of  land,  raising 
chiefly  beans  and  potatoes.  The  naturally  watered 
meadows  were  used  extensively  for  pasturing  their 
ponies  and  sheep.  Promptly  upon  the  removal  of 
the  Indians  to  their  Utah  home  the  country  was 
opened  to  pre-emption  and  claims  were  filed.  Most 
of  the  early  settlers  were  native-born  Americans 
from  other  parts  of  Colorado  and  from  neighbouring 
states.  They  established  themselves  along  the  Un- 
compahgre  and  Gunnison  rivers,  where  water  could 
be  most  easily  turned  upon  the  fields,  the  vicinity  of 
Montrose  being  some  of  the  first  territory  settled. 
A  steady  influx  of  settlers  followed.  The  chief  oc- 
cupation, naturally,  is  farming. 

In  the  fall  of  1882  the  Denver  and  Bio  Grande 
Eailroad  was  extended  from  the  east  into  the  region 
as  far  as  Montrose  on  the  Uncompahgre,  and  down 
that  stream  and  along  the  Gunnison  to  Grand  Junc- 
tion, the  important  railroad  centre  some  fifty  miles 
to  the  northwest.  A  branch  line  was  built  up  the 
Gunnison  and  its  North  Fork  to  Somerset,  about 
thirty-five  miles  eastward,  in  1901.  In  1888  and 
1889  another  branch  was  built  up  the  Uncompahgre 
from  Montrose  to  Ouray,  about  twenty  miles  beyond 
the  region  in  which  we  are  interested.  It  now  gives 
free  access  to  Telluride  and  other  mining  towns  in 
the  southwestern  part  of  Colorado.  No  part  of  the 
region  is  farther  than  fourteen  miles  from  a  railway 
and  with  the  construction  of  a  projected  electric  line 
connecting  Cedar  Eidge  in  the  northern  end  with 
Uncompahgre  Valley  points,  no  part  will  be  over 
seven  miles  distant. 


128       EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

Montrose,  the  largest  town  of  the  area,  has  a 
population  of  about  4,000.  It  is  the  commercial 
centre  of  a  rich  and  rapidly  developing  farming  sec- 
tion. It  is  the  junction  point  of  the  standard  and 
narrow  gauge  divisions  of  the  railway  system,  and 
is  the  gateway  to  the  great  San  Juan  mining  coun- 
try. It  owns  its  own  system  of  mountain  water,  has 
seventy- two  miles  of  cement  sidewalk,  is  well  sew- 
ered, owns  its  electric-light  plant,  has  daily,  one 
semi-weekly,  and  two  weekly  newspapers,  nine 
churches,  all  the  secret  societies,  fine  grammar  and 
high  schools,  women's  clubs  and  all  the  accessories  of 
cultured  and  progressive  western  civilization.  It  is 
the  county  seat  of  Montrose  County.  Delta,  the 
county  seat  of  Delta  County,  also  on  the  project,  re- 
ceived its  name  from  the  expansion  of  river  plain 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Uncompahgre  and  Gunnison 
rivers  and  is  next  in  size  with  2,500  inhabitants. 
Like  Montrose,  it  is  located  in  a  rich  agricultural  sec- 
tion. These  towns  furnish  good  local  markets  and 
are  also  important  as  shipping  points.  Olathe,  an- 
other town,  now  has  a  population  of  about  600.  In 
1912  it  was  able  to  ship  more  than  1,100  carloads  of 
farm  products.  The  town  has  well  laid  cement  side- 
walks, owns  its  water  system — a  pipe-line,  twenty- 
three  miles  long,  bringing  pure  mountain  water  from 
springs  in  Dry  Creek  Basin — and  in  1914  completed 
its  own  sewerage  and  drainage  systems.  Austin, 
Colona  and  Cedar  Eidge  are  other  towns  of  Delta 
and  Ouray  counties  but  not  in  the  project,  the  latter 
alone  not  being  on  the  railway,  but  proud  in  the  pos- 
session of  a  nearby  vein  of  good  coal,  which  is  being 
profitably  worked. 


THE  SNOWY  PEAKS  OF  THE  KOCKIES    129 

The  valley  has  a  creditable  system  of  roads.  On 
nearly  every  section-line  in  the  thickly  settled  parts 
a  highway  has  been  laid.  Some  of  the  unimproved 
road-beds  become  sticky  in  wet  weather,  but  these 
are  gradually  being  converted  into  highways.  The 
dominant  interest  throughout  is  agricultural,  with 
the  crafts  it  supports.  Grazing,  lumbering,  and 
mining  are  important  on  the  adjacent  hills. 

The  climate  of  the  region  is  one  that  gives  the  dis- 
tinctive four  seasons  that  seem  best  adapted  to  civ- 
ilized man.  The  winter,  however,  is  not  at  all  severe. 
Spring  may  be  said  to  open  in  late  March  or  early 
April  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  region,  and  about  two 
weeks  later  in  the  higher.  Many  apricot,  peach  and 
plum  trees  bloom  in  April,  and  some  vegetables  are 
planted  early  in  that  month.  The  records  show  that 
there  is  an  occasional  killing  frost  that  occurs  as  late 
as  May  16th,  and  as  early  as  October  2nd.  The 
average  growing  season  for  plants  sensitive  to  frost, 
therefore,  is  from  four  and  a  half  to  six  months. 
The  temperatures  permit  growing  successfully 
nearly  all  crops  common  to  the  same  latitude  east- 
ward, including  corn,  which  is  held  back  by  the  cool 
nights  of  the  higher  sections. 

There  are  none  of  the  prolonged  severe  winds 
that  are  known  on  the  plains  further  east,  as  the 
mountains  rise  several  thousand  feet  in  protection 
and  shelter.  Tornadoes  are  unknown.  Bather 
brisk  southwesterly  winds,  producing  dust  storms 
and  often  followed  by  showers,  characterize  the 
afternoons  of  late  spring  and  early  summer.  Occa- 
sional hailstorms,  usually  following  narrow  paths, 
damage  the  fruit  crop  to  some  extent. 


130       EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

The  precipitation  within  the  area  is  rather  equally 
distributed  throughout  the  seasons  and  probably 
averages  less  than  nine  and  a  half  inches.  The 
areas  above  6,000  feet  elevation  have,  perhaps, 
slightly  over  ten  inches  of  rain,  and  those  under 
5,300  feet  less  than  eight  inches.  Staple  crops, 
therefore,  require  irrigation. 

The  surrounding  plateaus  and  mountains  which 
furnish  the  water  for  irrigation  have  a  much  greater 
rainfall.  These  rains  come  mainly  in  summer. 
The  winter  precipitation  falls  chiefly  as  snow,  much 
of  it  remaining  as  late  as  midsummer.  A  striking 
feature  of  the  region  is  its  low  humidity.  This  ac- 
counts for  the  wonderful  clearness  of  the  atmos- 
phere. Montrose  averages  from  240  to  280  clear 
days  in  the  year,  and  naturally  the  whole  district  is 
peculiarly  and  happily  healthful. 

After  the  removal  of  the  Indians  and  the  influx  of 
the  white  settlers  it  was  soon  found  necessary  to  re- 
sort to  irrigation.  When  the  Service  began  its  work 
it  found  110  canals  and  laterals,  having  an  aggregate 
length  of  nearly  500  miles,  constructed  by  private 
enterprise.  Most  of  these  have  been  acquired  by 
the  Government  under  a  general  comprehensive  plan 
for  the  unification  of  the  irrigation  work  of  the  val- 
ley. They  have  been  standardized,  their  wooden 
headworks  largely  replaced  with  substantial  concrete 
structures,  wooden  flumes  replaced  by  steel  flumes 
on  concrete  pedestals,  etc.  In  one  place,  where  a 
depression  3,800  feet  wide  and  a  maximum  depth  of 
about  200  feet  had  to  be  crossed  with  about  42  cubic 
feet  of  water  per  second,  an  iron  pressure-pipe  was 
installed,  and,  a  distinctive  feature  of  the  East  Canal, 


IN  THE  HEART  OF  GUNNISON  CANYON,  NEAR  THE  TUNNEL 
UNCOMPAHGRE  PROJECT,  COLORADO 


THE  SNOWY  PEAKS  OF  THE  EOCKIES    131 

above  Olathe,  is  the  Garnet  Mesa  Siphon,  which 
delivers  25  second-feet  of  water  to  about  1,825  acres 
through  a  wood-stave  pressure-pipe  8,560  feet  long, 
under  a  maximum  head  of  ninety  feet. 

Under  the  old  private  canal-systems  shortage  of 
water,  with  consequent  loss,  was  frequent.  This  led 
not  only  to  much  irritation,  but  also  to  litigation 
which  rendered  habitation  in  the  valley  undesirable. 
To  relieve  this  situation,  and  irrigate  the  lands  that 
no  private  system  had  yet  reached,  became  the  task 
of  the  Reclamation  Service.  To  accomplish  this  it 
was  necessary  to  secure  far  more  water  than  had 
hitherto  been  available.  As  early  as  1890  L.  C. 
Lauzon  conceived  the  idea  of  bringing  the  waters  of 
the  Gunnison  Eiver  into  the  Uncompahgre  Valley, 
and  private  capital  with  state  aid  attempted  the 
task ;  in  December,  1901,  a  tunnel  was  located  north- 
east of  Montrose,  and  about  six  miles  northwest  of 
the  present  Gunnison  tunnel  and  work  began  upon  it. 
But  early  in  the  fall  of  1902,  after  having  driven  900 
feet  of  tunnel,  the  funds  were  exhausted  and  the 
work  was  suspended. 

When  the  Eeclamation  Service  undertook  the  work 
the  State  conveyed  its  rights  to  the  Government,  and 
on  June  7,  1904,  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  au- 
thorized the  expenditure  of  $2,500,000  for  the  Un- 
compahgre Project.  The  most  important  feature  of 
the  work  was  the  bringing  of  the  Gunnison  River, 
which  flows  in  a  deep  canyon  to  the  eastward, 
roughly  parallel  to  the  Uncompahgre,  into  the  valley. 
To  explore  the  canyon  of  the  Gunnison  was  an 
heroic  task,  and  the  story  of  this  achievement  gives 
one  thrills  of  admiration  for  the  bravery  of  those  who 


132       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

dared  it.  .Three  or  four  boats  that  started  down 
were  wrecked  in  the  rapids  and  one  of  the  adven- 
turous party  nearly  lost  his  life,  but  the  site  of  the 
tunnel  was  found.  When  built  this  was  30,645  feet 
in  length,  has  a  uniform  grade  of  2.02  feet  per  1,000 
feet,  the  bottom  is  flat,  10  feet  in  width.  The  sides 
are  straight,  10  feet  high  with  a  batter  outward  of 
6  inches,  the  roof  is  arched  with  a  span  of  11  feet  and 
a  rise  of  2.5  feet  within  the  concrete  lining.  The 
entire  area  of  the  cross-section  inside  the  concrete 
lining  is  122  square  feet,  the  water  carrying  cross 
section  is  estimated  at  100  square  feet  and  the  dis- 
charge is  estimated  at  1,300  second  feet. 

The  original  contractors  were  unable,  through 
want  of  capital,  to  carry  on  the  work,  and  after  four 
months  their  financial  failure  compelled  the  Service 
to  undertake  the  work  with  its  own  force,  the  new 
bids  submitted  being  deemed  far  beyond  a  reason- 
able cost.  There  were  great  difficulties  experienced 
in  accomplishing  this  task.  Sometimes  the  pressure 
of  inflowing  water  was  so  great  as  to  eject  the  pow- 
der-charges from  the  drill-holes  before  they  could 
be  exploded.  In  December,  1906,  a  flow  of  water  of 
more  than  a  million  gallons  per  hour  was  tapped. 
Accompanying  this  water  was  an  enormous  volume 
of  carbon  dioxide,  which  drove  all  the  men  from  the 
tunnel  and  compelled  the  temporary  abandonment 
of  the  work.  After  about  three  weeks  entrance  was 
again  gained,  but  the  flow  of  gas  was  so  strong  and 
shaft  about  9,000  feet  from  the  west  portal  of  the 
tunnel  700  feet  in  depth  as  an  aid  to  ventilation, 
the  temperature  so  high  that  work  was  impossible. 
To  overcome  this  difficulty,  it  was  decided  to  sink  a 


THE  SNOWY  PEAKS  OF  THE  EOCKIES    133 

The  excessive  humidity,  the  high  temperature,  and 
the  swelling  ground  so  rotted  and  weakened  the  tim- 
bers, with  which  the  tunnel  temporarily  was  lined, 
that  it  was  found  necessary  to  start  lining  the  tunnel 
with  concrete. 

These  were  but  some  of  many  difficulties  encoun- 
tered and  overcome,  for  the  excavation  work  was 
completed  July  6,  1909,  and  on  September  23,  of  the 
same  year,  with  great  rejoicing,  President  Taft  for- 
mally opened  the  tunnel.  The  actual  completion  of 
all  the  work  has  not  yet  been  accomplished,  as  it  is  to 
be  cement-lined  throughout.  The  first  water  for  irri- 
gation purposes  was  delivered  through  it  on  July 
6,  1910.  The  flow  of  water  has  been  gradually  in- 
creased from  year  to  year  until  750  feet  were  carried 
for  a  considerable  length  of  time  in  1916. 

A  diversion  dam  was  also  built  in  the  Gunnison 
Eiver  to  divert  the  water  into  the  tunnel.  This  is  a 
rock-filled  crib  structure,  with  a  crest  240  feet  long, 
18  feet  wide,  and  an  apron  42  feet  wide.  In  front  of 
the  intake  gates  a  sluiceway  has  been  provided  to  pre- 
vent the  accumulation  of  gravel.  This  has  two  cast- 
iron  gates,  each  six  by  eight  feet,  operated  by  hand. 

The  South  Canal  is  the  chief  work  outside  of  the 
tunnel.  It  extends  from  the  west  portal  of  the  Gun- 
nison Tunnel,  eleven  and  a  half  miles,  to  the  Uncom- 
pahgre  Eiver.  It  has  a  capacity  of  1,300  second- 
feet,  and  irrigates  13,600  acres. 

As  a  larger  acreage  is  brought  under  cultivation  it 
will  be  essential  to  insure  absolutely  a  sufficient  sup- 
ply of  water.  The  present  reliance  is  upon  the  Un- 
compahgre  and  Gunnison  rivers  which  are  fed  by 
melting  snows.  They  begin  to  rise  when  the  snow; 


134       RECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

melts  in  the  spring,  reaching  culmination  sometime  in 
June,  and  then  declining  irregularly  until  winter. 
The  maximum  demand  for  irrigation  is  usually  later 
than  the  maximum  flow  of  the  streams,  and  does  not 
decline  so  rapidly.  The  combined  flow  of  both 
streams  available  for  irrigation  in  the  Uncompahgre 
Valley  is  usually  sufficient  for  the  requirements  of 
the  area  to  be  included  in  the  complete  project, 
though  sometimes  there  would  be  a  slight  shortage  in 
August  or  September.  In  1902,  which  was  a  phenom- 
enally dry  year,  there  would  have  been  a  shortage 
of  over  forty  per  cent. 

To  provide,  therefore,  against  contingencies,  the 
Service  has  in  mind  the  possibility  of  erecting  a  ma- 
sonry dam  on  the  Taylor  Kiver,  a  tributary  of  the 
Gunnison,  having  a  drainage  area  of  253  square 
miles.  This  would  give  additional  storage  of  106,- 
000  acre-feet. 

With  the  abundance  of  water  provided,  the  farmers 
of  the  Uncompahgre  Valley  are  now  able  to  work 
most  successfully.  There  has  been  considerable  dis- 
satisfaction, however,  at  the  cost  of  the  project. 
The  settlers  have  contended  that  they  were  to  have 
water  at  a  less  charge  per  acre,  than  what  the  pro- 
ject has  so  far  cost.  To  adjust  this  difficulty,  how- 
ever, a  conference  was  held  in  1917  making  clear, 
among  other  matters,  that  the  originally  assumed 
costs  did  not  include  the  later  consolidated  and  im- 
proved canal  systems.  As  the  times  of  beginning  the 
payment  have  been  extended  five  years  a  suitable  and 
amicable  adjustment  was  made,  and  the  farmers  have 
gone  to  work  with  zeal.  While  in  the  past  they  have 
confined  themselves  largely  to  alfalfa,  potatoes, 


THE  SNOWY  PEAKS  OF  THE  EOCKIES  135 

wheat,  oats,  sugar-beets,  and  onions,  they  are  now 
beginning  to  awaken  to  the  desirability  of  more  di- 
versified farming  and  a  steady  rotation  of  crops. 
A  flouring-mill  has  recently  been  established ;  in  due 
time  there  will  be  a  beet-sugar  factory,  and  when  in- 
coming settlers  are  willing  and  ready  to  listen  to  the 
advice  of  a  practical  farmer  as  to  locations,  methods 
of  work,  etc.,  it  is  possible  an  advisory  farmer  will  be 
provided.  The  live-stock  of  the  region  is  famous, 
the  cattle  being  allowed  free  and  open  range  in  the 
mountains  during  the  summer,  being  brought  up  and 
fed  in  winter  when  range-feed  is  scarce.  Dairying, 
however,  is  rapidly  on  the  increase,  home  demand 
for  butter  alone  not  yet  being  supplied,  for  com- 
mercial reports  show  that  Montrose  County  alone 
consumes  $900  worth  of  butter  per  week  more  than 
it  produces. 

In  fruits,  apples,  pears,  plums,  and  cherries  do 
well,  and  while  frost  occasionally  pinches  peaches 
and  apricots,  there  are  some  regions  in  which  they 
thrive  and  are  profitable. 

Smudging  for  prevention  of  injury  by  spring 
frosts  is  systematically  carried  out  as  is  done  in  the 
orange-groves  of  Southern  California.  This  is  a 
procedure  of  placing  small  sheet-iron  buckets  or 
stoves  in  the  orchards  in  which  coal  or  crude  oil  is 
burned.  The  heat  thus  generated  by,  say,  about  one 
hundred  buckets  or  stoves  to  the  acre,  raises  the  tem- 
perature and  thus  obviates  fruit  destruction  by  the 
frosts. 

The  estimated  cost  of  the  entire  project  when  com- 
pleted, including  Taylor  Park  Keservoir,  the  con- 
struction of  which  has  not  been  decided  upon,  is  in 


136       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

the  neighbourhood  of  nine  or  ten  million  dollars.. 
The  charge  to  the  settler,  depending*  on  the  ultimate 
acreage,  will  be  payable  in  the  twenty  years  now 
allowed  by  the  Government.  The  public  lands  of  the 
project  will  probably  be  opened  in  the  fall  of  1917. 
Announcement  of  this  will  be  made  in  due  time. 
The  farm  unit  will  be  forty  acres,  though  lands 
bought  in  private  ownership  may  be  irrigated  to  the 
extent  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres. 

The  Project  Manager  is  Fred  D.  Pyle,  with  office 
at  Montrose,  Colorado, 


CHAPTER  XI 

ON  THE  WESTERN   TRAIL.      THE  BOISE  PROJECT,  IDAHO 

The  Snake  Eiver  Valley  was  one  of  the  main  trav- 
elled routes  from  the  East  to  the  Pacific  Coast,  in 
1863.  Fort  Boise  was  established  for  the  protection 
of  the  emigrants  coming  to  southwestern  Idaho,  on 
account  of  the  historic  gold  rush  of  1862.  In  the 
same  year  Boise  City  was  laid  out  on  the  plain  be- 
tween the  fort  and  the  river. 

During  the  ages  of  the  formation  of  the  valley  of 
the  Snake  River  and  its  tributaries,  the  Payette  and 
Boise  valleys,  a  series  of  volcanic  craters  located 
along  its  northern  boundary,  sent  forth  streams  of 
lava,  which  flowed  across  it  to  the  southwest.  Suc- 
cessive eruptions  followed,  at  periods  of  ages,  and 
between  each  there  was  formed  a  layer  of  soil  and 
disintegrated  rock.  Since  the  last  overflow  the  gla- 
cier period  has  come  and  gone,  and  the  upper  and 
lower  ends  of  the  valley  are  seared  with  deep  gashes 
cut  by  the  glaciers,  and  great  moraines  of  sand  and 
gravel  have  been  left  on  the  surface  of  the  plain. 
The  soil  of  this  section  is  volcanic  ash  mixed  with  dis- 
integrated lava,  and  the  sand  and  gravel  of  the  gla- 
cier moraines,  a  combination  that  insures  one  of  the 
richest,  most  productive  and  lasting  of  soils. 

Careful  reconnoissance  showed  that  here  were 
nearly  400,000  acres  of  land  to  be  reclaimed  and 
turned  over  to  settlers  whereupon  to  establish  homes 
and  thus  enlarge  their  happiness  and  the  growth  of 

137 


138       RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

the  country.  What  wonder  that  it  awakened  a  large 
vision  in  the  minds  of  the  engineers. 

On  the  western  slope  of  the  Sawtooth  range  of 
mountains,  in  Idaho,  the  Boise  Eiver — a  tributary  of 
the  Snake — heads  in  a  watershed  of  2,650  square 
miles.  After  it  leaves  the  mountains  it  adds  1,000 
square  miles  more  of  foothill  and  valley  area  to  its 
watershed. 

Most  of  its  water  supply  is  derived  from  the  melt- 
ing snow  in  the  mountains,  and  therefore  has  the 
usual  irregularity  of  flow  characteristic  of  such 
streams,  viz. :  a  low  stage  in  the  winter,  while  the 
mountain  streams  are  frozen ;  a  rising  stage  with  the 
progress  of  spring,  reaching  a  culmination  some- 
where in  June,  and  declining  during  July  and  August 
as  the  snows  disappear,  reaching  a  minimum  again 
in  winter.  The  regularity  of  this  ir-regularity  is 
varied,  at  times,  by  rainfall  and  fluctuations  of  tem- 
perature, but  such  snow-fed  streams  are  far  more 
dependable  for  a  constant  water-supply  than  are 
those  that  rely  upon  rainfall. 

This  project  provides  for  the  storage  of  these  wa- 
ters at  Arrowrock,  about  20  miles  above  Boise,  and 
at  Deer  Flat,  and  their  use  upon  over  200,000  acres 
in  the  Boise  Valley.  (By  the  way  let  me  suggest  that 
the  reader  unfamiliar  with  the  name  do  not  pro- 
nounce this  as  a  word  of  one  syllable.  It  is  properly 
and  commonly  made  into  two  syllables  and  pro- 
nounced Boy — sy.)  The  water  of  the  Boise  Eiver 
is  diverted  by  a  dam  about  eight  miles  above  Boise, 
whence  it  is  distributed  on  the  south  side  of  the  river 
by  the  Main  South  Side  Canal  leading  from  the  dam 
to  the  Deer  Flat  Eeservoir ;  through  laterals  heading 


ON  THE  WESTERN  TRAIL  139 

in  the  Main  Canal;  canals  heading  in  the  Deer  Flat 
Eeservoir;  distributing  canals  heading  in  the  river 
below  the  Boise  Eiver  Dam ;  then  distributing  water 
on  the  north  side  of  the  river  to  a  small  area  of  land 
east  of  Boise,  through  a  canal  system  heading  at  the 
Boise  River  Dam.  Altogether  the  project  will  have 
over  980  miles  of  canals. 

The  Deer  Flat  Reservoir  covers  9,835  acres  and 
has  an  available  capacity  above  outlets  of  177,000 
acre-feet. 

At  the  point  where  the  canyon  of  the  Boise  River 
spreads  out  fanlike  and  merges  into  the  flat  slopes  of 
the  arable  lands  of  the  lower  valley  is  placed  the 
Boise  Project  Diversion  Dam,  this  being,  as  just 
stated,  about  eight  miles  upstream  from  Boise.  It  is 
35  feet  high  and  400  feet  long  and  is  built  of  rubble 
concrete — large  blocks  of  lava  embedded  in  concrete 
of  the  usual  consistency — and  backfilled  on  the  up- 
stream side  with  earth  and  gravel.  It  is  provided 
with  a  logway,  on  account  of  the  importance  of  the 
logging  industry  in  this  section.  This  logway  is  pro- 
vided with  a  movable  crest  which  is  raised  when  logs 
are  passing  or  during  periods  of  high  water,  and  low- 
ered during  the  remainder  of  the  season  to  increase 
the  head  on  the  power  plant.  At  the  east  end  of  the 
dam  is  a  small  gate  for  diverting  water  to  a  canal 
leading  to  the  farm  of  the  State  Penitentiary  near 
Boise,  and  at  the  west  end  are  the  diversion  works  of 
the  main  canal  of  the  Boise  Project.  A  fish-ladder  is 
also  provided  next  to  the  logway. 

For  the  diversion  of  the  river  during  construction, 
two  parallel  tunnels  were  provided  in  the  left  bank, 
each  six  by  eight  feet,  closed  by  cast-iron  gates. 


140       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

These  tunnels  are  160  feet  long  and  lined  with  con- 
crete, and  recently  a  third  parallel  tunnel  has  been 
built,  and  all  are  used  as  tail-races  in  the  develop- 
ment of  power,  and  the  power-house  built  over  them. 
They  are  controlled  by  butterfly  gates,  each  nine  by 
twelve  feet,  protected  by  a  grillage  in  front. 

This  power  plant  at  the  diversion  dam  was  built 
primarily  for  furnishing  power  during  the  construc- 
tion of  Arrowrock  Dam.  Its  capacity  is  2,700  H.  P. 
but  this  is  decreased  during  low  stages  of  the  river. 
Since  its  completion,  in  1912,  it  has  not  only  furnished 
power  for  Arrowrock,  but  has  run  the  Government 
electric  dredges  used  in  digging  the  ditches  in  the 
lands  being  drained  near  Caldwell  in  the  Pioneer 
drainage  district,  and  through  arrangements  with 
one  of  the  private  companies  operating  in  Boise,  has 
been  used  to  run  the  street  cars  and  light  the  homes 
in  Boise. 

It  operates  under  a  head  of  approximately  30  feet 
and  is  equipped  with  three  generators. 

The  Main  Canal  heads  on  the  east  side  of  the  diver- 
sion dam  and  follows  the  course  of  a  small  canal 
which  was  acquired  in  1906  from  the  New  York  Canal 
Company  and  Idaho-Iowa  Lateral  and  Eeservoir 
Company.  Twenty-three  miles  below  the  heading 
the  water  discharges  into  Indian  Creek  and  is  again 
diverted  to  a  canal  eight  miles  long  leading  to  Deer 
Flat  Eeservoir,  an  inland  reservoir  set  in  the  midst 
of  the  project.  About  seven  miles  of  the  upper  sec- 
tion of  the  main  canal  has  been  lined  with  concrete 
and  has  a  bottom  width  of  40  feet.  The  unlined  por- 
tion has  a  bottom  width  of  70  feet.  From  the  Diver- 
sion Dam  to  Indian  Creek  the  capacity  is  2,500  sec- 


ON  THE  WESTEEN  TEAIL  141 

ond-feet  and  the  lower  portion  discharges  approxi- 
mately 1,500  second-feet. 

Deer  Flat  Eeservoir  forms  a  lake  within  the  pro- 
ject. This  was  originally  an  expanse  of  level  lying 
land  called  the  Deer  Flat,  and  partially  irrigated 
from  one  of  the  old  canal  systems  of  the  valley.  A 
hill  lying  toward  the  northern  end  and  rising  from 
the  flat  made  it  possible  to  close  the  narrow  spaces 
between  this  hill  and  the  surrounding  high  land  with 
earthen  dikes.  These  are  known  as  the  Upper  and 
Lower  Embankments. 

The  chief  engineering  feature  of  the  project,  how- 
ever, is  the  Arrowrock  Dam.  The  canyon,  the  chosen 
site,  has  high  bare  granite  cliffs  on  the  north  side, 
with  a  less  precipitous  slope  on  the  south,  the  foot  of 
the  slope  being  capped  with  a  wedge  of  basalt,  nearly 
perpendicular  at  the  river,  forming  a  cliff  70  to  80 
feet  high,  with  a  level  bench  intersecting  the  granite 
slope  further  back.  This  bench  and  the  granite  slope 
above  it  were  covered  with  a  layer  of  soil  and  some 
vegetation.  The  site  of  the  dam  was  thoroughly 
explored  with  diamond  drills,  showing  a  foundation 
of  good  granite  at  a  maximum  of  90  feet  below  the 
bed  of  the  river,  and  a  depth  of  60  to  70  feet  over 
most  of  the  foundation,  the  overlying  material  con- 
sisting of  gravel,  sand,  and  boulders  suitable  for  use 
in  concrete. 

Preliminary  to  the  construction  of  the  dam,  a 
standard  gauge  railroad  17  miles  long  was  built  from 
Barberton,  the  end  of  a  railroad  spur  out  of  Boise,  to 
the  dam  site.  Eegular  train  service  over  this  line 
has  been  maintained  since  its  completion  in  Novem- 
ber, 1911,  and  during  the  first  four  years  it  hauled 


142        EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

about  80,000  passengers  and  nearly  15,000,000  ton 
miles  of  freight. 

The  maximum  height  of  the  dam  is  348.6  ft.,  its 
length  is  1,100  ft.,  it  contains  585,200  cu.  yds.  of  con- 
crete and  it  has  a  gravity  section  but  is  built  on  a 
curve  of  660  ft.  radius.  There  are  20  outlets  through 
the  dam,  three  of  them  6  ft.  and  the  rest  4  ft.  4  in.  in 
diameter,  each  controlled  by  a  58-in.  balanced  needle 
valve  set  on  the  upstream  face.  These  outlets  are 
arranged  in  two  sets  of  ten  each,  the  upper  set  being 
about  110  ft.  below  the  top  of  the  dam  and  the  other 
set  about  90  ft.  lower.  There  are  also,  just  at  the  old 
river  level,  five  sluicing  outlets  5  ft.  in  diameter,  each 
controlled  by  a  sliding  gate.  All  gates  are  operated 
from  chambers  within  the  dam.  Inspection  galler- 
ies, of  which  the  control  chambers  form  a  part,  give 
access  to  the  interior  of  the  dam  at  several  different 
elevations. 

The  spillway  has  a  capacity  of  40,000  sec.-ft.  The 
weir  is  400  ft.  long  and  extends  back  upstream  from 
one  end  of  the  dam  at  about  a  right  angle  to  a  tangent 
to  the  curve  at  that  point.  A  discharge  trench  picks 
up  the  water  along  the  toe  of  the  weir  and  carries  it 
past  the  end  of  the  dam  to  the  canyon  of  a  creek  that 
enters  the  river  a  few  hundred  feet  below  the  dam. 
This  spillway  trench  was  excavated  through  solid 
rock,  and  is  lined  with  concrete.  The  whole  of  this 
work  was  done  by  the  forces  of  the  Service. 

As  already  stated,  the  canals  of  the  Boise  Project 
serve  lands  lying  above  those  previously  irrigated  by 
private  enterprise.  Most  of  them  are  rolling  bench 
lands,  and  although  some  bottom-lands  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Snake  Eiver  are  also  included,  these  are 


o 

Si 


1    O 


is 


ON  THE  WESTERN  TEAIL  143 

generally  sandy  and  rough.  The  system  for  distrib- 
uting irrigation  water,  therefore,  is  complicated  and 
expensive,  requiring .  tortuous  canals,  and  a  large 
number  of  drops,  chutes,  pressure-pipes,  etc.  These 
are  generally  of  concrete  for  the  sake  of  safety  and 
permanency,  though  a  few  problems  were  success- 
fully solved  by  means  of  steel  and  wood.  In  lower- 
ing water  from  the  bench  to  the  Snake  Eiver  bottom 
several  drops  of  great  elevation  were  needed.  The 
smaller  were  in  the  form  of  pipes  and  the  larger  were 
open  chutes  located  where  the  necessary  fall  is  com- 
pressed into  the  shortest  practical  distance. 

It  was  decided  early  in  the  construction  of  the  pro- 
ject that  to  facilitate  it  a  telephone  system,  controlled 
by  the  Service,  would  be  needed.  Consequently  in 
March,  1910,  work  was  begun  and  at  the  close  of 
that  year  the  main  trunk  lines  of  the  system  were 
completed.  By  the  close  of  1911  there  had  been 
completed  about  158  miles  of  telephone  line.  This 
system  has  since  been  extended  so  that  at  present 
there  are  167  miles  of  metallic  circuit  operated  by 
the  Service,  which  gives  connection  with  the  head- 
gates,  waterways,  watermasters,  and  ditch-riders. 
The  central  switchboard  is  located  at  Boise,  Idaho, 
where  day  and  night  service  is  maintained.  It  is 
largely  due  to  the  telephone  service  that  serious 
breaks  in  the  canal  system  have  been  avoided. 

Beginning  with  the  season  of  1907,  when  the  man- 
agement of  the  operation  of  the  New  York  Canal  was 
assumed  by  the  Eeclamation  Service,  it  has,  each 
year,  delivered  water  through  this  canal  to  the  stock- 
holders of  the  New  York  Canal  Company,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  contract  with  that  company.  During 


144       RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

the  year  1907  about  10,000  acres  of  New  York  Canal 
Company  lands  were  irrigated  and  this  amount  has 
gradually  been  increased  until  at  the  present  about 
20,000  acres  are  being  irrigated. 

During  the  year  1909  the  Service  furnished  water 
to  project  lands  for  the  first  time,  amounting  to  ap- 
proximately 4,000  acres.  This  has  been  increased  at 
the  present  time  to  approximately  112,000  acres. 
This  amount  of  land  represents  that  in  actual  culti- 
vation and  is  scattered  over  230,000  acres  for  which 
the  Service  is  now  prepared  to  deliver  water. 

Practically  all  of  the  public  land  of  the  project  has 
been  entered,  but  there  are  approximately  3,400  acres 
of  irrigable  unsold  State  land  under  the  project. 

The  opportunities  of  new  settlers  lie  in  the  sub- 
division and  disposal  of  public  lands  by  parties 
now  holding  them,  through  assignment,  and  by  the 
purchase  of  private  land  or  lands  owned  by  the  State. 

Besides  the  older  towns  of  Nampa,  Caldwell,  and 
Meridian,  there  are  the  smaller  towns  of  Kuna,  Bow- 
mont,  Melba,  Greenleaf,  Huston,  and  Wilder  that 
have  been  located  on  the  project  and  owe  their 
growth  entirely  to  its  development. 

The  best  measure  of  an  irrigation  project's  suc- 
cess is  found  in  the  crops  produced  thereon.  In  1916 
over  2,300,000  dollars'  worth  of  produce  was  har- 
vested. This  was  from  the  72,500  acres  then  under 
cultivation  upon  which  crop  reports  were  taken, 
about  one-half  of  the  project.  The  average  farm 
value  of  the  crops  per  acre  was  $32.07. 

The  value  of  livestock  owned  by  the  settlers  at 
the  close  of  1916  was  over  seventeen  hundred  thou- 
sand dollars,  and  the  development  in  dairying 


ON  THE  WESTEEN  TRAIL  145 

and  stock  growing  is  proceeding  at  a  rapid  rate. 

The  principal  products  are  alfalfa,  wheat,  oats, 
potatoes,  apples,  prunes,  and  small  fruits. 

The  average  elevation  of  the  irrigable  area  is  2,500 
feet  above  sea  level,  and  the  average  rainfall  for  35 
years  is  13.5  inches.  The  temperature  ranges  from 
28°  below  zero,  to  107°  Fahr.  Very  little  snow  falls, 
and  what  does  usually  melts  quickly.  The  ground  is 
usually  entirely  free  from  snow  for  eleven  months  of 
the  year.  The  atmosphere  is  clear  and  bracing,  se- 
vere winds  are  unknown,  and  there  is  continuous 
sunshine,  as  a  rule,  throughout  the  growing  season. 

With  such  favourable  winter  and  summer  weather 
therefore,  combined  with  an  abundance  of  rich  pas- 
turage, and  comparatively  little  disease,  all  condi- 
tions render  this  region  eminently  suitable  to  the 
profitable  raising  of  stock,  including  cattle,  hogs, 
sheep,  and  horses.  A  considerable  amount  of  winter 
feeding  of  sheep  from  the  open  range  is  done. 
Portland,  Ore.,  Omaha,  Kansas  City  and  Chicago  fur- 
nish the  principal  markets. 

There  are  many  dairies  being  conducted  along 
scientific  lines,  and  each  year  show^  a  satisfactory 
growth  in  this  direction.  A  few  farmers '  co-oper- 
ative creameries  have  been  established  on  or  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  project,  and  these  are  operating  suc- 
cessfully. Dairying  products  are  consumed  partly 
by  a  generous  local  demand,  and  partly  by  the  outside 
markets. 

The  farm  unit  is  80  acres  of  irrigable  land,  and  the 
construction  cost  about  $80.00  per  acre,  payable  in 
twenty  years  without  interest. 

The  present  Project  Manager  is  D.  W.  Cole,  with 
offices  at  Boise,  Idaho. 


CHAPTER  XII 

BY  THE   RIVER   OF   THE   SNAKES.      THE   MINIDOKA 
PROJECT,   IDAHO 

Named  after  a  branch  of  the  great  Shoshone  fam- 
ily of  North  American  Indians,  the  Snake  River,  the 
name  is  a  misnomer,  for  it  has  nothing  whatever  to 
do  with  snakes.  Yet  as  it  has  been  in  use  for  over 
a  century  we  may  as  well  accept  it,  for  anything  a 
century  old  in  the  United  States  already  has  the  au- 
thority of  antiquity.  Hence  we  have  the  Minidoka 
Project,  with  its  source  of  water-supply  in  this  river 
of  the  Snakes.  This  is  no  mean  river,  as  one  may 
learn  who  reads  Lewis  and  Clark's  account  of  it  as 
they  journeyed  westward  on  their  tour  of  explora- 
tion. It  heads — in  one  of  its  numerous  branches — 
in  or  near  the  Yellowstone  National  Park,  and  occu- 
pies the  same  relative  position  to  the  southwest  of 
that  scenic  wonderland,  that  the  Shoshone  River  does 
to  the  northeast. 

This  project  was  one  of  the  earliest  undertaken 
by  the  Reclamation  Service  and  for  that  reason,  as 
well  as  several  others,  its  history  is  both  interesting 
and  important. 

At  the  time  it  was  started  it  was  expected  that  the 
Service  would  build  the  storage  and  diversion  works 
and  the  main  canals,  while  the  settlers  would  be  able 
to  build  and  operate  the  laterals  from  the  main  canals 
to  their  own  farms.  It  was  soon  found,  however, 
that  this  method  resulted  in  a  great  deal  of  friction  in 

146 


BY  THE  EIVEB  OF  THE  SNAKES     147 

a  new  community,  with  unsatisfactory  results  to  the 
project  as  a  whole.  The  policy,  therefore,  was 
changed  and  most  of  the  laterals  built  by  the  settlers 
have  been  purchased  by  the  Service  and  made  a  part 
of  the  complete  system,  which  delivers  water  directly 
to  the  farms. 

The  project,  at  the  time  it  was  initiated,  consisted 
of  public  land  and  unsold  State  school  lands.  There 
were  only  two  or  three  pieces  of  homesteaded  land, 
which  had  been  patented  within  its  boundaries. 
However,  as  soon  as  it  was  known  that  the  Keclama- 
tion  Service  contemplated  the  construction  of  the 
project,  settlers  rushed  in  and  the  land  was  soon  all 
taken  up.  These  settlers  had  to  wait  for  several 
years  before  the  canals  were  completed,  and  it  was 
possible  to  deliver  water  to  them.  Many  of  them 
were  not  farmers  and  did  not  know  what  work  of 
preparation  it  would  be  necessary  to  do  before  they 
could  water  their  lands.  Most  of  them  found  work 
of  one  kind  or  another  upon  the  construction  of  the 
works,  but  for  practically  all  of  them  the  years  were 
years  of  extreme  hardship  and  discouragement. 

It  was  a  recognition  of  this  fact  on  this  and  one  or 
two  other  projects  that  led  to  the  withdrawal  of  all 
public  lands  from  settlement  upon  even  contemplated 
projects,  or  those  upon  which  construction  had  be- 
gun, until  the  work  was  declared  completed. 

The  irrigation  plan  provides  for  the  diversion  of 
the  waters  of  the  Snake  Eiver  by  a  combined  storage, 
diversion  and  power  dam  about  six  miles  south  of 
Minidoka,  Idaho,  into  two  canal  systems,  one  on 
either  side  of  the  river,  watering  lands  in  the  vicinity 
of  Acequia,  Eupert,  Heyburn,  and  Burley,  Idaho. 


148       EECLAIMING  THE  AKED  WEST 

Power  developed  at  the  dam  is  utilized  primarily  for 
pumping  water  from  the  canals  to  irrigate  high  lands, 
but  also  for  pumping  for  drainage  purposes  and  for 
furnishing  heat,  light,  and  current  for  commercial 
use  to  the  towns  on  the  project,  and  the  farms  adja- 
cent to  them. 

Storage  is  provided  mainly  by  a  reservoir  con- 
structed in  the  upper  drainage  basin  of  Snake  Eiver, 
at  Jackson  Lake,  Wyoming.  This  is  supplemented 
by  the  reservoir  formed  by  the  Minidoka  Dam  and 
known  as  Lake  Walcott,  in  recognition  of  the  work  of 
Hon.  Charles  D.  Walcott,  formerly  Director  of  the  U. 
S.  Geological  Survey,  now  Secretary  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution.  Jackson  Lake  Dam,  as  originally 
planned,  and  Minidoka  Dam  are  finished,  though  the 
former  was  raised  seventeen  feet  higher  after  com- 
pletion of  the  first  unit,  giving  the  lake  a  capacity  of 
790,000  acre-feet.  The  irrigation  system  for  the 
gravity  unit  and  the  southside  pumping  unit  and  the 
drainage  system  for  the  gravity  canals  are  still  under 
construction. 

The  area  of  the  drainage  basin  is  22,600  square 
miles  above  the  diversion  dam ;  the  annual  run-off  in 
acre-feet,  of  Snake  Eiver  at  Montgomery's  and  How- 
elPs  Ferries  and  Neeley  (16,000  square  miles),  from 
1896  to  1914,  was,  maximum,  8,900,000;  minimum, 
3,830,000;  mean,  6,971,000.  The  South  Fork  of 
Snake  Eiver  at  Moran,  Wyo.  (980  square  miles), 
1904  to  1914,  maximum,  1,640,000;  minimum,  920,- 
000 ;  mean,  1,310,000. 

The  average  rainfall  on  the  irrigable  area  for 
nearly  ten  years  is  12.62  inches,  and  the  temperature 
ranges  from  fifteen  degrees  below  zero  to  one  hun- 


; 

I 


BY  THE  EIVEE  OF  THE  SNAKES     149 

dred  degrees  Fahr.  The  average  elevation  of  the 
land  is  4,225  feet  above  sea  level,  and  the  length  of 
the  irrigating  season  is  from  April  1  to  October  31, 
214  days. 

In  one  of  his  lectures  on  the  Keclamation  Service 
Mr.  C.  J.  Blanchard,  the  Statistician  who  makes  his 
figures  both  eloquent  and  poetic,  said  in  regard  to  the 
project : 

In  the  Spring  of  1904,  I  camped  for  the  night  on  the 
banks  of  Snake  River,  Idaho.  My  companion,  the  engineer, 
D.  W.  Ross,  confided  to  me  two  plans  for  a  great  work  in 
this  section,  which  was  to  create  in  the  desert  a  garden  cover- 
ing twenty-five  square  miles.  He  drew  his  plans  roughly 
in  the  sand  as  we  sat  by  the  campfire. 

"Here,"  he  said,  "I  shall  build  a  dam  to  turn  the  waters 
into  huge  canals  on  either  side." 

"When  I  returned  another  year  the  dam  was  finished. 
Pointing  to  a  landscape  of  desolation,  whose  outer  ends 
touched  the  sky,  and  on  which  there  was  no  sign  of  human 
habitation,  he  said:  "This  desert  will  one  day  become  a 
show  place — a  garden  rich  and  productive,  and  supporting 
in  comfort  a  thousand  families." 

Last  year,  standing  where  I  did  three  years  before,  I 
realized  that  the  engineer's  dream  had  come  true.  Look 
where  I  would,  in  any  direction,  I  saw  no  desert.  Culti- 
vated fields,  with  harvests  ready  for  garnering;  pleasant 
little  homes  on  each  forty  and  eighty  acres ;  children  playing 
in  the  sunshine,  sturdy  and  happy ;  the  garden  crops  being 
gathered  for  winter-storage,  gave  abundant  evidence  that 
the  soil  was  productive,  and,  when  watered,  gave  generous 
reward  to  the  farmer. 

Twenty-two  hundred  families  are  living  here  today,  "when 
only  a  short  time  ago  there  was  no  sign  of  human  life. 
Four  prosperous  towns,  soon  to  become  cities,  have  sprung 
up  along  the  new  railroads.  This  is  a  transformation  to 
make  you  rub  your  eyes  with  wonder  and  amazement. 


150       EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

This  was  nearly  ten  years  ago,  and  developments 
have  continued  rapidly  during  this  period,  hence  the 
reader  may  well  strive  to  imagine  what  the  results 
are  today. 

The  delivery  of  water  began  on  the  gravity  unit 
in  1907,  and  on  the  pumping  unit  in  1909.  Gradually 
since  that  time  the  handicap  of  sandy  lands  has  been 
overcome  and  today  the  Minidoka  Project  is  one  of 
the  most  prosperous,  not  only  in  the  Eeclamation 
Service,  but  in  the  West.  The  settlers  are  getting  on 
their  feet  and  have  learned  the  necessity  of  diversi- 
fying their  crops.  With  this  have  come  better  prices 
and  better  feeling.  Practically  all  of  the  ne'er-do- 
wells  have  been  eliminated  and  their  places  have 
been  taken  by  new  men  who  are  able  to  take  advan- 
tage of  their  opportunities  and  improve  their  own 
condition,  as  well  as  the  project  as  a  whole. 

Today  out  of  70,000  acres  under  the  Gravity 
Canals  45,000  acres  are  in  actual  cultivation.  Of  49,- 
000  acres  under  the  South  Side  Pumping  canals  41,- 
000  acres  are  in  cultivation.  Some  3,000  acres  of 
State  lands  are  as  yet  unsold  and  there  are  a  few 
homesteads  not  yet  entered,  most  of  these  latter, 
however,  are  poor  and  contain  only  a  small  area  of 
irrigable  land,  most  of  which  is  sandy  or  has  some 
other  bad  feature.  Improved  farms  are  selling  at 
from  $75  to  $200  per  acre,  and  near  the  towns  prices 
of  $300  per  acre  are  frequently  reached. 

On  the  Gravity  Unit  of  the  project  the  rise  of  un- 
derground water  early  became  a  serious  problem. 
At  one  time  nearly  one-half  of  the  gravity  area  was 
threatened  with  serious  damage  from  seepage.  Nu- 
merous deep  drains  have  been  dug  to  conduct  this 


BY  THE  EIVEE  OF  THE  SNAKES     151 

water  off  the  project,  and  now  the  problem  is  satis- 
factorily solved.  Much  of  the  work  was  done  at  a 
very  low  cost  with  electricity  developed  at  Minidoka 
dam.  Of  the  whole  area  which  at  one  time  was  en- 
dangered, less  than  600  acres  now  are  troubled  by 
water  and  this  is  practically  all  in  ponds  which  are 
too  low  to  be  successfully  drained. 

Until  July  in  ordinary  years  the  project  has 
an  ample  supply  of  water  from  the  natural  flow 
of  the  Snake  Eiver.  After  that  time  the  needs 
of  the  project  are  supplied  from  the  large  storage 
reservoir  above  noted  known  as  Jackson  Lake 
in  Wyoming,  which  is  only  some  15  miles  south 
of  the  Yellowstone  Park.  The  flow  from  this  reser- 
voir is  supplemented  by  a  smaller  quantity  from  Lake 
Walcott,  which  is  formed  by  the  back-water  above 
the  diversion  dam  for  the  project,  near  Minidoka. 
This  latter  reservoir  is  a  great  convenience  and  ad- 
vantage to  the  project,  as  its  50,000  acre-feet  capa- 
city forms  an  equalizing  basin,  which  can  be  drawn 
upon  at  any  time  by  the  canals.  In  getting  water 
down  from  Jackson  Lake  through  a  stretch  of  the 
Snake  Eiver,  250  miles  long  and  out  of  which  some  50 
canals  take  water,  there  are  necessarily  some  uncer- 
tainties and  irregularities  in  the  flow.  This  would 
be  quite  a  handicap  to  the  operation  of  the  project, 
were  it  not  for  the  reservoir  capacity  always  avail- 
able in  Lake  Walcott. 

At  the  diversion  dam  and  on  the  shores  of  the  Lake 
the  Eeclamation  Service  maintains  a  beautiful  little 
park  which  is  taken  advantage  of  by  the  settlers  for 
recreation  and  amusement.  Lake  Walcott  is  from 
one  to  four  miles  wide  and  about  10  miles  long. 


152       EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

Above  this  the  diversion  dam  has  backed  the  water 
into  the  narrow  channel  of  the  Snake  Eiver  for  an 
additional  twenty  miles.  All  of  this  water  is  navi- 
gable for  comparatively  large  boats. 

The  Minidoka  Dam  is  a  combination  of  rockfill 
backed  with  earth  on  the  water  side,  built  in  a  gorge 
of  the  river,  and  continued  on  the  basalt  mesa  to  the 
south,  in  the  form  of  a  concrete  weir,  which  serves 
as  a  spillway.  The  weir  is  provided  with  a  mov- 
able crest,  consisting  of  a  series  of  buttresses  against 
which  are  placed  flash-boards  to  store  flood  waters 
for  irrigation.  Before  the  height  of  the  flood  season 
in  early  June  the  flash-boards  are  removed  to  allow 
the  floods  to  pass  over  the  weir,  and  as  the  floods 
subside  the  boards  are  replaced  in  order  to  hold  and 
store  as  much  of  the  surplus  waters  as  may  be.  The 
available  storage  capacity  above  the  level  necessary 
for  diversion  purposes  is  about  54,000  acre-feet,  and 
the  area  of  the  lake  at  full  capacity  is  11,350  acres. 

The  dam  and  headworks  were  built  by  contract  in 
1906  and  1907.  The  contract  included  a  portion  of 
the  North  Canal  in  rock  section. 

As  it  was  desirable  to  consolidate  the  rock  of  the 
dam  two  aerial  cableways  were  provided,  each  having 
a  span  of  1,150  feet  with  a  capacity  of  seven  tons, 
and  the  rock  was  dropped  from  20  to  60  feet,  thus 
crushing  it  closely  together. 

The  earth  fill  was  composed  chiefly  of  sand  and 
gravel,  with  selected  material  containing  clay  for  the 
water  slope,  which  was  protected  by  rip-rap  of  basalt 
rock. 

A  concrete  core  wall  was  built  on  bed-rock  entirely 
across  the  river,  and  brought  from  5  to  13  feet  up 


BY  THE  EIVEE  OF  THE  SNAKES     153 

into  the  fill  at  the  up-stream  toe  of  the  rockfill,  form- 
ing a  water-tight  junction  between  the  earth  and  bed- 
rock. 

There  are  two  projects  in  the  vicinity  of  Twin 
Falls,  Idaho,  which  have  a  prior  right  to  the  natural 
flow  of  the  Snake  Eiver  and  which  divert  their  water 
about  35  miles  further  down  the  river.  A  large 
stream  of  water  for  these  projects  is  therefore  al- 
ways passing  the  Minidoka  Diversion  Dam.  Advan- 
tage is  taken  of  this  to  develop  10,000  electrical  horse 
power.  This  power  is  used  in  the  summer  time  to 
pump  water  to  49,000  acres  of  high  land  lying  south 
of  the  Snake  Eiver.  The  water  is  pumped  to  a  maxi- 
mum elevation  of  90  feet  in  three  large  pumping 
plants.  In  fact  these  pumping  plants  hold  the  rec- 
ord and  are  the  largest  in  the  world.  This,  too,  is 
the  largest  single  body  of  land  on  which  pumping  has 
been  attempted.  On  the  north  side  of  the  river 
there  are  five  small  irrigation  pumping  plants,  which 
supply  water  to  areas  varying  in  size  from  100  acres 
to  2,200  acres.  One  other  plant  pumps  water  from 
a  large  drain  ditch  that  flows  into  a  swamp  or  pond, 
the  surface  of  which  is  below  the  river  level,  and  dis- 
charges it  into  one  of  the  irrigation  canals,  from 
which  it  is  used  again  for  irrigation. 

One  peculiarity  of  the  Gravity  Unit  of  the  project 
is  that  the  general  surface  of  the  land  is  almost  flat, 
so  that  land  10  miles  from  the  river  is  in  many  cases 
practically  at  the  river  level.  This  is  one  of  the 
reasons  why  the  seepage  problem  early  became  a 
very  serious  one  for  the  project. 

The  soils  vary  from  a  loose  sand  which  moves 
readily  in  the  wind  to  a  comparatively  heavy  loam. 


154       EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

There  are  no  adobes  on  the  project,  although  some 
of  the  river  bottoms  approach  this  class  of  soil.  In 
the  earlier  days  before  the  farms  had  been  success- 
fully put  under  cultivation,  the  crops  were  blown  out 
two  or  three  times  during  a  single  season ;  often  when 
the  young  plants  were  making  good  progress,  a  wind 
would  come  up  and  the  movement  of  the  sharp  sandy 
particles  along  the  surface  would  cut  the  young 
plants  off  at  the  ground  level.  This  is  particularly 
the  condition  on  the  northeast  section  of  the  project. 
Most  of  these  places  have  now  been  successfully  put 
into  alfalfa  and  in  a  few  years  this  crop  puts  enough 
humus  in  the  soil  to  act  as  a  binder  and  the  difficulty 
is  overcome. 

The  most  interesting  and  extraordinary  develop- 
ment on  the  Minidoka  Project  is  the  great  use  made 
of  electricity  in  the  towns  and  on  the  farms,  which  are 
so  situated  that  they  can  secure  electric  power.  Out- 
side of  the  irrigation  season  electricity  is  a  by-pro- 
duct and  as  the  population  of  the  towns  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  anywhere  near  use  the  capacity  of  the  power 
plant  when  electricity  is  consumed  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses, it  has  been  possible  to  make  low  rates  and 
to  encourage  the  use  of  electricity  as  a  substitute  for 
coal  for  such  purposes  as  heating  houses  and  large 
buildings.  Hundreds  of  homes  are  thus  heated  and 
all  classes  of  people  are  taking  advantage  of  this 
opportunity  to  increase  the  comfort  of  life.  The 
consumers'  installations  run  all  the  way  from  small 
one  and  two  room  shacks,  using  perhaps  two  or  three 
kilowatts,  to  a  large  school  building  in  which  a  cen- 
tral heating  plant  consuming  some  600  kilowatts  is 
used  to  heat  a  building  of  30  rooms.  This  electricity 


INTERIOR  OP  MINIDOKA  HYDRO-ELECTRIC  POWER-HOUSE 
MINIDOKA  PROJECT,  IDAHO 


ELECTRICALLY  HEATED  HIGH  SCHOOL  AT  RUPERT 
MINIDOKA  PROJECT,  IDAHO 


BY  THE  EIVEE  OF  THE  SNAKES     155 

is  sold  at  a  price  of  from  $1  to  $1.25  per  kilowatt  per 
month,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  small  fraction  of  a 
cent  per  kilowatt-hour.  The  amount  of  heat  re- 
quired for  homes  varies  widely  with  the  size  and  con- 
struction. Many  of  the  ordinary  five  or  six  room 
houses  are  heated  at  a  cost  of  from  $12  to  $15  per 
month.  Electricity  at  a  little  higher  rate  is  sold  for 
cooking,  washing,  ironing,  lights,  pumping  and  many 
other  domestic  purposes,  for  which  it  is  so  useful  in 
the  home  and  on  the  farm. 

The  Eeclamation  Service  is  in  some  cases  also  sell- 
ing power  to  the  individual  consumer.  Where  it  is 
feasible,  however,  the  farmers  are  encouraged  to 
form  mutual  companies,  which  take  the  power  at 
some  central  point  and  distribute  it  to  the  members. 
In  this  way  some  hundred  or  more  farmers  are  now 
supplied.  In  the  towns  small  distributing  companies 
have  been  organized  for  retailing  the  power.  Cheap 
power  has  been  an  attraction  which  is  bringing  in 
manufacturing  industries  of  various  sorts.  One 
large  sugar  factory  has  been  in  operation  for  three 
years  at  Burley,  Idaho,  and  another  is  being  erected 
between  the  towns  of  Kupert  and  Paul.  There  are 
several  small  flour  mills  in  operation  and  a  300  barrel 
mill  is  now  being  put  in  at  Burley.  Several  alfalfa 
meal  mills  are  in  operation.  There  is  a  large  brick 
yard  in  Heyburn,  an  ice-plant  at  Eupert  and  many 
other  industries.  Special  effort  has  been  made  by 
the  management  of  the  project  to  bring  in  industries 
which  help  create  markets  for  the  agricultural  prod- 
ucts. These  efforts  have  been  rewarded  with  suc- 
cess, and  it  is  believed  that  the  present  prosperity  of 
the  country  is  largely  due  to  the  development  of  home 


156        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

markets.  At  the  present  time  there  is  an  opening 
for  many  more  industries.  A  movement  is  on  foot 
which  is  expected  to  result  in  bringing  in  the  organ- 
ization of  a  mutual  creamery  at  Eupert.  Two  mu- 
tual cheese  factories  have  been  organized,  one  at 
Acequia  and  one  at  Paul.  These  are  doing  a  very 
good  business  and  are  unable  to  supply  the  demand 
for  their  products. 

Alfalfa  is  still  the  staple  crop  and  the  crop  bring- 
ing in  the  largest  revenue.  With  this  as  a  founda- 
tion it  is  possible  to  build  up  a  large  dairy  industry 
and  other  industries  which  will  result  in  the  manu- 
facturing of  the  finished  product  in  this  section. 

A  large  amount  of  money  is  being  expended  at  the 
present  time  for  road  improvements.  Several  hun- 
dred automobiles  have  been  sold  to  the  farmers  dur- 
ing the  last  year.  The  combined  result  of  this  is  to 
increase  the  facility  with  which  the  settlers  get  over 
the  project  and  become  familiar  with  each  other  and 
their  problems.  Farmers  came  in  here  a  few  years 
ago  all  entire  strangers  to  each  other ;  they  are  now 
becoming  well  acquainted  and  are  therefore  able  to 
work  together  for  their  common  good. 

On  August  first  the  settlers  will  vote  on  taking  over 
the  operation  and  maintenance  of  the  Gravity  Unit  of 
the  project.  There  is  little  doubt  but  that  they  will 
carry  the  election,  and  if  they  do  this  will  be  the  first 
of  the  Eeclamation  projects  to  be  turned  over  to  the 
farmers  for  operation.  The  Service  is  encouraging 
the  farmers  to  take  control  of  this  part  of  the  project, 
where  the  construction  work  is  now  practically  all 
cpmpleted  and  handle  it  themselves. 

The  principal  products  are  alfalfa,  forage,  grasses, 


BY  THE  RIVER  OF  THE  SNAKES     157 

rye,  wheat,  oats,  sugar  beets,  potatoes,  and  fruits, 
and  the  principal  markets  are  Pocatello,  Idaho ;  Salt 
Lake  City,  Utah ;  Butte  and  Helena,  Montana. 

The  limit  of  the  farm  units  on  public  lands  is  80 
acres,  and  the  building  charges  vary,  being  $22,  $30 
$40,  etc.,  according  to  locality,  per  acre  of  irrigable 
land,  payable  in  twenty  years,  without  interest. 

The  towns  and  populations  on  the  project  are  Ru- 
pert, 1,500;  Heyburn,  300;  Burley,  2,500;  Ashton, 
600 ;  Paul  and  Marshfield,  and  they  are  reached  by  the 
Oregon  Short  Line  and  the  Salt  Lake  and  Idaho 
railways. 

The  present  Project  Manager  is  Barry  Dibble,  with 
offices  at  Burley,  Idaho. 


CHAPTEE  XIII 

JACKSON   LAKE   ENLARGEMENT   PROJECT 
IDAHO-WYOMING 

Since  the  passage  of  the  Reclamation  Act  in  1902 
several  important  changes  have  been  made  in  it  as 
imperative  needs  have  arisen.  No  one  assumed  that 
its  first  provisions  were  perfect,  or  adequate  to  meet 
every  contingency  that  might  arise,  hence  wisdom 
has  allowed  it  to  be  alive,  elastic.  The  Service  has 
had  no  desire  to  confine  its  energies  to  the  building  of 
its  own  bureau  or  department  alone,  merely  seeking 
to  increase  its  own  size  and  power.  When  oppor- 
tunities arose  for  larger,  wider,  greater  public  serv- 
ice its  officers  gladly  availed  themselves  of  the  open- 
ings and  went  out  into  fuller  usefulness.  They  are 
not  only  authorized  but  are  required,  upon  the  proper 
showing,  to  give  assistance  to  outside  irrigation  sys- 
tems, provided,  however,  the  storage  dams  and  reser- 
voirs constructed  and  created  are  owned  by  the  Gov- 
ernment, so  that  they  ultimately  come  into  the  pos- 
session of  the  actual  farmers.  In  other  words  the 
Service  will  construct  great  irrigation  systems  for 
corporations  or  private  capital,  but  these  corpora- 
tions cannot  own  the  works  so  constructed,  the  ulti- 
mate aim  being  their  complete  ownership  by  the 
farmers  whose  lands  are  being  irrigated  by  them. 

The  Jackson  Lake  Enlargement  is  a  work  of  this 
character.  Certain  companies  were  irrigating  large 
areas  of  land  in  Idaho.  Their  supply  of  water  be- 

158 


JACKSON  LAKE  PEOJECT  159 

came  insufficient.  To  remedy  this  need  the  compan- 
ies— the  Kuhn  Irrigation  &  Canal  Company  and  the 
Twin  Falls  Canal  Company — entered  into  an  agree- 
ment with  the  United  States  whereby  more  water 
could  be  secured.  These  companies  advanced  all  the 
money  required  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  work, 
and  the  title  and  control  remain  in  the  hands  of  the 
United  States. 

Jackson  Lake,  Wyoming,  was  already  being  used 
for  storage  purposes,  and  careful  study  by  the  Serv- 
ice engineers  revealed  that  the  dam  could  be  raised 
and  the  storage  capacity  correspondingly  enlarged. 

This  lake  is  located  in  the  northwestern  corner  of 
Wyoming,  23  miles  east  of  the  Idaho- Wyoming  line, 
20  miles  south  of  the  south  boundary  of  the  Yellow- 
stone National  Park,  on  the  South  Fork  of  the  Snake 
River,  and  the  dam  is  placed  at  Moran,  at  the  outlet 
of  Jackson  Lake.  It  is  about  69  miles  from  Ashton, 
and  48  miles  from  Victor,  Idaho,  both  on  the  Oregon 
Short  Line  Eailroad. 

The  history  of  Jackson  Lake  as  a  reservoir  dates 
back  to  1902  and  1903,  when  the  first  surveys  were 
made  of  it  by  the  Service  in  connection  with  the  Min- 
idoka  Project  and  a  gauging  station  at  the  outlet  was 
established  on  September  1, 1903.  During  1905, 1906 
and  1907,  a  temporary  timber-framed  dam  was  con- 
structed at  the  outlet  to  provide  about  200,000  acre- 
feet  of  storage  for  the  Minidoka  Project  until  the 
duty  of  water  could  be  determined,  and  the  storage 
requirements  ascertained.  In  1909  further  surveys 
and  investigations  were  made  for  a  reservoir  that 
would  represent  the  ultimate  development  of  local 
water  resources,  as  several  of  the  Carey  Act  com- 


160       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

panies  in  southern  Idaho  had  expressed  a  desire  to 
obtain  storage  at  this  point.  In  due  time  proper  leg- 
islation was  enacted  to  permit  the  United  States  to 
enter  into  a  contract  with  these  companies  for  the 
construction  of  a  high  dam. 

Later,  in  July,  1913,  the  Kuhn  Irrigation  &  Canal 
Company  was  found  to  be  in  financial  trouble  and 
could  not  keep  its  part  of  the  contract.  But  the 
farmers  were  dependent  upon  the  enlarged  water 
supply,  hence  matters  were  so  adjusted  that  work 
progressed.  The  enlargement  is  now  completed. 
The  original  dam,  constructed  in  1911,  is  entirely  en- 
veloped in  a  new  dam,  raising  the  maximum  water 
surface  seventeen  feet,  and  increasing  its  storage 
capacity  from  380,000  acre-feet  to  789,000  acre-feet. 

The  Engineer  in  charge  of  the  work  was  F.  A. 
Banks,  with  office  at  Moran,  Wyoming. 


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CHAPTER  XIV 

ON   THE  LOWER   YELLOWSTONE.      THE    HUNTLEY 


The  sound  of  the  name  Yellowstone  brings  a  thrill 
to  the  heart  of  every  cultured  traveller.  Even  if  he 
has  not  seen  the  spouting  geysers,  the  canyon  of  gor- 
geous colours  and  waterfalls,  the  richly  coloured 
pools,  the  friendly  bears  and  deer,  the  mud  volcanoes, 
sulphur  mountain,  obsidian  cliff,  and  the  glorious  ter- 
raced pools,  he  has  read  and  dreamed  of  their  at- 
tractions and  allurements. 

But  the  Yellowstone  Eiver  lives  in  the  hearts  of 
men  not  only  because  its  waters  make  the  thunderous 
music  of  tuneful  cataracts,  and  sing  to  scintillating 
glory  of  brilliant  colour  down  the  canyon  of  rapids 
and  cascades.  They  also  give  life  and  nourishment 
to  fertile  fields,  productive  gardens,  and  fruitful  or- 
chards and  thus  minister  to  the  physical  and  financial 
well-being  of  man.  The  region  chosen  for  the  diver- 
sion of  the  waters  of  the  Yellowstone  is  a  historic  one. 
It  was  trodden  early  by  the  band  of  brave  explorers 
led  by  Lewis  and  Clark  on  their  great  Oregon  Explor- 
ation, Captain  Clark  having  returned  home  by  the 
Yellowstone  Eiver.  Indeed  his  name  is  carved  upon 
a  noted  landmark  of  the  region — Pompey's  Pillar 
—with  the  date  July  25,  1806. 

Not  far  away  to  the  southeast  is  Custer's  mem- 
orable Battleground,  where  the  flaxen-haired  general 

161 


162       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

went  down  to  brave  death  with  his  gallant  soldiers 
and  covered  themselves  with  imperishable  glory  and 
a  nation's  tears. 

The  old  and  original  name  of  Huntley — which  is 
now  borne  by  the  project — was  Baker's  Battle- 
ground. The  whole  region  is  one  of  romance.  Fol- 
lowing the  explorers  came  the  Indian  traders,  trap- 
pers and  pioneers  from  the  Missouri  River.  In  the 
early  days  it  was  a  region  of  Indians,  buffalo  and  fur- 
bearing  animals.  Crows,  Sioux  and  other  warlike 
tribes  roamed  the  natural  pastures,  killed  what  buf- 
falo they  needed,  and  fished  in  the  well-stocked 
streams.  Then  came  the  fur-traders,  later  the  min- 
ing prospectors,  and,  in  the  early  'sixties,  a  number 
of  Southerners  who  refused  to  fight  against  the 
Union.  Finding  the  country  a  well-watered,  smooth 
and  fertile  one,  many  of  these  new-comers  soon 
turned  to  agriculture  and  thus  laid  the  foundation 
for  the  present  modern  development. 

The  lands  under  the  Huntley  Project  are  situated 
in  the  Yellowstone  Valley  and  extend  in  a  compact 
body  from  Huntley  to  Bull  Mountain  Station  on  the 
Northern  Pacific  Eailway,  40  miles  east  of  Billings, 
Montana.  They  lie  south  of  the  Yellowstone  Eiver 
at  an  altitude  of  about  three  thousand  feet  above 
sea  level.  The  tract  comprised  about  33,000  acres  of 
what  was  formerly  part  of  the  Crow  Indian  Reserva- 
tion and  is  included  within  the  ceded  strip  which  is 
open  to  settlement  under  the  provisions  of  the  act  of 
Congress  approved  April  27, 1904. 

The  irrigable  lands  slope  gently  toward  the  Yel- 
lowstone Eiver.  They  are  in  general  smooth,  and 
there  was  little  expense  in  putting  them  under  irri- 


ON  THE  LOWER  YELLOWSTONE      163 

gation.  Toward  the  lower  end  of  the  project,  how- 
ever, five  thousand  acres  are  flat  and  alkali  has  accu- 
mulated. About  one-half  of  these  lands  are  under- 
lain with  gravel  at  a  depth  of  from  three  to  six  feet, 
and  it  was  thought  that  by  using  care  no  special  trou- 
ble would  be  had.  The  remaining  lands  have  a  heavy 
clayey  soil  extending  to  a  considerable  depth,  per- 
haps ten  or  fifteen  feet,  before  gravel  is  encountered. 
The  soil  on  the  project  in  general  varies  from  a  heavy 
clay  to  a  light  sandy  loam.  In  most  places  there  is 
a  good  growth  of  grass,  while  occasionally  there  is  a 
heavy  growth  of  sage-brush.  The  alkali  lands  are 
distinguished  by  greasewood,  salt  grass  and  similar 
plants.  Along  the  river  there  is  in  most  places  a 
heavy  growth  of  cottonwood  trees.  This  growth 
furnishes  considerable  timber  for  fire-wood,  fences 
and  general  purposes.  South  of  the  irrigable  land 
the  country  rises  gradually  to  the  high  divide  be- 
tween the  Yellowstone  and  the  Big  Horn  Eivers. 
This  country  is  covered  with  grass  and  suitable  for 
the  grazing  of  stock.  Across  the  river  from  the 
Huntley  Project,  at  the  western  end,  is  an  irriga- 
ted bench  which  is  being  developed  under  the  Carey 
Act.  Lower  down  the  river  the  country  slopes  back 
into  a  series  of  rough,  broken  hills,  suitable  for  graz- 
ing and  having  more  or  less  pine  and  cedar  trees. 

Water  for  the  irrigation  of  this  tract  is  taken  from 
the  Yellowstone  River.  Rising  in  the  rugged,  snow- 
capped peaks  of  the  Yellowstone  National  Park,  this 
river  flows  into  the  great  natural  reservoir,  Yellow- 
stone Lake,  which  conserves  the  water  and  regulates 
its  flow.  In  addition  to  this,  large  national  forests 
through  which  the  river  passes  hold  back  the  melting 


164        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

snows  and  maintain  the  discharge  of  water  through- 
out the  summer.  The  Yellowstone  Eiver  above 
Huntley  has  a  drainage  area  of  about  11,180  square 
miles.  The  approximate  maximum  discharge  of  the 
river  at  this  point  during  the  high  water  period, 
which  is  usually  in  June,  is  30,000  cubic  feet  per 
second,  and  at  the  end  of  the  irrigation  season  in 
October  the  discharge  is  approximately  5,000  cubic 
feet  per  second. 

Unimproved  lands  with  water  right  under  the 
Carey  Act  across  the  river  from  the  Huntley  Pro- 
ject sold  in  1909  for  $50  per  acre.  Improved  lands 
in  this  immediate  vicinity  sold  from  $100  per  acre 
up.  A  brief  investigation  and  estimate  was  made  of 
the  Huntley  Project  and  it  was  found  that  the  cost  of 
constructing  the  canal  with  complete  distributing  and 
drainage  system  would  not  exceed  $30  per  acre. 
There  was  a  ready  home  market  for  all  the  farm 
products  that  could  be  raised,  as  there  were  from  five 
million  to  six  million  dollars '  worth  of  farm  products 
shipped  into  Montana  every  year.  It  has  been  dem- 
onstrated that  all  the  crops  which  could  be  grown 
in  the  same  latitude  anywhere  could  be  grown  here. 

The  climate  of  the  Yellowstone  Valley  is  especially 
favourable.  During  the  growing  season  the  days  are 
long  and  there  is  a  preponderance  of  sunshine.  The 
highest  temperature  is  about  100  degrees  Fahr.,  and 
during  the  winter  months  the  mercury  seldom  drops 
below  zero  and  then  only  for  a  few  days  at  a  time. 
The  dry  season,  coming  as  it  does  at  harvest  time,  is 
also  an  aid  to  agriculture.  Here,  then,  was  found 
33,000  acres  of  fine  agricultural  land  capable  of  sup- 
porting six  hundred  families  that  really  was  not 


ON  THE  LOWER  YELLOWSTONE     165 

supporting  six.  There  was  an  abundance  of  water,  a 
ready  market  and  good  climate. 

Two  transcontinental  railroads  traversed  the  en- 
tire length  of  the  tract,  the  Northern  Pacific  and  the 
Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy.  The  land  could  be 
reclaimed  at  a  cost  not  to  exceed  $34  per  acre,  in- 
cluding a  payment  of  $4  per  acre  to  the  Crow  In- 
dians who  owned  the  land.  Irrigated  lands  farther 
up  the  valley  were  selling  for  from  $100  per  acre  up. 
If  this  tract  had  not  been  included  in  the  Crow  Reser- 
vation, it  would  have  been  settled  years  previous  to 
this. 

These  facts  had  been  carefully  considered  by  the 
engineers  of  the  Reclamation  Service  and  within  a 
few  days  after  the  passage  of  the  act  of  April  27, 
1904,  providing  for  the  investigation  of  feasible  irri- 
gation projects  on  the  ceded  strip  of  the  Crow  Indian 
Reservation  in  Montana,  an  engineer  was  directed 
to  make  a  reconnaissance,  and  on  April  18, 1905,  the 
construction  of  the  Huntley  Project  was  authorized. 

The  Crow  Indian  Reservation  was  established  by 
order  of  President  Grant,  January  31,  1894,  and  all 
the  lands  of  the  project  were  embraced  within  its 
confines,  hence  were  not  subject  to  homestead  entry 
and  development.  The  act  of  April  29,  1904,  pro- 
vided for  the  payment  to  the  Crows  of  $1,150,000  for 
the  lands.  The  Indians  were  to  have  a  reasonable 
time  within  which  to  elect  whether  to  remain  there  or 
to  have  their  improvements  appraised  and  sold  and 
to  remove  to  the  diminished  reservation.  After  the 
completion  of  allotments  to  the  Indians,  the  residue 
of  the  ceded  lands  was  to  be  subject  to  withdrawal 
and  disposition  under  the  Reclamation  Act,  pro- 


166       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

vided,  however,  that  if  the  lands  withdrawn  under 
the  Eeclamation  Act  were  not  disposed  of  within 
five  years,  all  the  lands  were  to  be  disposed  of  as 
other  lands  provided  for  in  the  act. 

The  water  supply  is  obtained  from  the  Yellow- 
stone Eiver,  which  at  Huntley,  Montana,  has  a  drain- 
age basin  of  12,000  square  miles.  The  run-off  during 
the  period  1908  to  1914,  inclusive,  varied  from  1,700 
second-feet  to  47,900  second-feet,  the  minimum  oc- 
curring during  the  winter  months  and  the  maximum 
during  the  summer  months.  The  run-off  for  the 
summer  1914  was  unusually  low.  During  the  five 
years  (1908-1913)  the  run-off  in  acre-feet  per  annum 
has  been :  maximum,  7,391,600 ;  minimum,  5,068,000 ; 
mean,  6,145,520. 

The  supply  of  water  for  the  project  is  diverted 
from  the  river  about  three  miles  west  of  Huntley. 
At  that  point  the  diversions  are  regulated  by  sub- 
stantially built  concrete  headgates  which  remain 
wide  open  during  the  irrigation  season.  The  water 
diversions  to  the  project  are  regulated  by  a  sluice- 
way about  two  miles  below  the  headgates  and  from 
that  point  the  entire  flow  in  the  main  canal  can  be  di- 
verted to  the  river  at  any  time.  The  river  flow  dur- 
ing the  season  of  1914  was  very  low  and  at  one  time 
all  the  water  that  could  be  diverted  was  used  for 
irrigation  purposes. 

After  careful  study  of  the  region  by  the  engi- 
neers of  the  Eeclamation  Service  in  1904  the  loca- 
tion of  the  intake  and  the  course  of  the  canal  were 
decided  upon.  Three  tunnels  were  found  necessary 
in  order  not  to  interfere  with  the  Northern  Pacific 
Eailway  line.  These  were  to  be  9.2  feet  wide  and 


HEADGATE,  SHOWING  GATE  STANDS,  YELLOWSTONE  RIVER 
HUNTLEY  PROJECT,  MONTANA 


DIRECT  PUMPING  PLANT 
HUNTLEY  PROJECT,  MONTANA 


ON  THE  LOWER  YELLOWSTONE      167 

9  feet  high  at  the  centre  of  the  arch,  and  were  to 
be  lined  with  concrete  from  6  to  12  inches  thick. 

Immediately  upon  the  completion  of  location  and 
cross-sectioning  of  the  main  canal,  the  work  of  sub- 
dividing the  irrigable  land  was  commenced  and  all 
section  lines  were  traced  and  16th  corners  set.  At 
the  same  time  a  careful  study  of  the  resources  and 
conditions  affecting  the  farmers  of  the  Yellowstone 
Valley  was  made  before  deciding  upon  the  40-acre 
farm  unit  policy.  A  house  to  house  canvass  of  the 
irrigated  lands  near  Billings  showed  that  a  good 
living  was  being  made  on  40  acres  of  land.  The 
building  of  the  beet  sugar  factory  at  Billings  and 
the  establishment  of  a  creamery  at  that  point,  to- 
gether with  the  general  development  of  this  part  of 
the  State,  were  found  reasons  why  a  small  farm  unit 
should  be  adopted.  In  laying  out  the  farm  units 
on  this  project,  the  policy  has  been  to  give  each  set- 
tler about  40  acres  of  irrigable  land  and  to  include 
with  the  irrigable  land  such  pasture  land  or  wood- 
land as  could  be  found  adjacent.  The  farm  units 
therefore  contained  from  40  to  160  acres  of  land,  of 
which  40  or  more  acres  are  classed  as  irrigable.  In 
many  cases  the  units  are  made  up  of  fractional  lots, 
thus  bringing  the  total  of  some  farm  units  up  to 
60  or  70  acres,  a  large  number  of  these  units  lying 
along  the  main  canal  and  along  the  Yellowstone 
Eiver  or  where  broken  land  occurred. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  lands  under  the  Hunt- 
ley  Project  are  flat  and  in  some  cases  impregnated 
with  alkali  and  also  owing  to  the  small  farm  unit, 
it  was  decided  best  that  the  Government  construct 


168        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

the  lateral  system  so  as  to  deliver  water  to  the  high 
point  of  each  farm  unit  and  to  lay  out  a  system  of 
wastewater  ditches  to  assist  in  keeping  the  alkaline 
lands  from  becoming  water-logged  and  unfit  for  cul- 
tivation. One  hundred  and  sixty  miles  of  lateral 
ditches  and  65  miles  of  waste  water  ditches  were 
required  to  develop  about  29,000  acres  of  irrigable 
land. 

The  intake  is  located  in  the  Yellowstone  Eiver 
about  2%  miles  west  of  Huntley.  The  headworks 
consist  of  a  reinforced  concrete  structure  provided 
with  two  steel  gates,  each  5  feet  by  7  feet  and  ar- 
ranged to  divert  water  without  the  necessity  of  a 
weir.  The  floor  elevation  of  the  headworks  is  2,996.2 
feet,  while  the  surface  elevation  of  the  river  at  low 
water  is  3,003.5  feet. 

From  the  headworks  the  water  is  carried  through 
Tunnel  No.  1,  which  is  724  feet  long ;  thence  through 
a  rock  cut  to  Tunnel  No.  2,  1,545  feet  long;  thence 
through  open  cut  and  slough  to  Tunnel  No.  3,  385 
feet  long.  The  three  tunnels  have  a  total  length  of 
2,654  feet. 

About  a  mile  east  of  Ballantine  the  main  canal 
drops  about  34  feet.  It  was  decided  to  utilize  the 
power  obtained  from  this  drop  to  pump  water  onto 
the  adjacent  bench  and  irrigate  about  three  thou- 
sand acres  of  land.  The  power  house  is  of  rein- 
forced concrete.  The  interior  is  in  one  room  which 
contains  the  two  pumping  units.  The  units  are  du- 
plicate, and  each  consists  of  a  vertical  turbine  ac- 
tuating a  20  inch  centrifugal  pump.  Both  turbine 
and  pump  are  mounted  on  the  same  shaft  and  en- 
closed in  a  steel  cylinder  casing.  The  weights  of 


ON  THE  LOWER  YELLOWSTONE      169 

the  moving  parts  are  carried  on  a  water  bearing, 
under  pressure  from  the  force  pipe.  An  automatic 
alarm  gives  warning  of  any  failure  of  this  system  of 
water  lubrication. 

These  pumps  have  been  in  constant  use  without 
interruption  and  are  practically  automatic  in  their 
operation.  No  engineer  or  attendant  is  required 
except  to  inspect  them  occasionally  and  regulate  the 
supply  of  water.  This  inspection  and  adjustment 
is  made  by  the  canal  rider  in  charge  of  the  district 
and  does  not  interfere  with  his  other  duties,  as  it  is 
required  to  be  done  only  two  or  three  times  a  day. 

A  telephone  system  was  installed  in  1906  which 
has  been  a  great  convenience  to  the  settlers. 

On  May  21,  1907,  the  President  issued  a  procla- 
mation declaring  that  the  lands  shown  on  the  ap- 
proved farm  unit  plats  of  the  Huntley  Project  would, 
on  and  after  July  22,  1907,  be  open  to  settlement 
entry  and  disposition  under  the  provisions  of  the 
Reclamation  Act  and  the  Act  of  April  27,  1904.  In 
order  that  the  settlement  of  these  lands  might  be 
effected  in  an  orderly  manner,  the  intending  set- 
tlers were  required  to  register  at  the  district  land 
office  at  Billings,  Montana,  before  4:30  P.  M.,  on 
June  25,  1907.  A  total  of  5,491  registrations  was 
made  for  these  lands.  At  9 :00  A.  M.  the  next  day, 
in  the  presence  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  the 
drawing  was  made  from  the  registered  applicants 
and  a  thousand  numbers  were  drawn.  Beginning 
July  22,  the  applicants  corresponding  to  the  first 
fifty  numbers  were  allowed  to  file  on  the  lands. 
Each  day  thereafter  fifty  persons  were  allowed  to 
file  until  the  names  on  the  list  were  exhausted,  and 


170       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

on  August  23  the  project  lands  were  thrown  open  to 
unrestricted  entry  under  the  terms  of  the  Beclama- 
tion  Act.  A  charge  of  25c  was  made  upon  regis- 
tering. 

There  were  hundreds  of  people  in  Billings  and 
immediate  vicinity  that  registered  for  these  lands 
who  had  no  intention  of  filing  on  them,  but  registered 
presumably  to  swell  the  number  of  registrations  and 
see  what  number  they  would  draw.  Out  of  the  first 
thousand  names  drawii  there  were  574  whose  resi- 
dence was  given  as  Billings.  A  great  many  people 
came  from  considerable  distances  to  register  for 
these  lands  with  the  intention  of  filing,  and  of  course 
a  great  many  of  the  names  were  not  drawn  out 
among  the  first  thousand  drawn,  and  a  great  many 
others  were  so  far  down  on  the  list  that  they  re- 
turned home  thinking  the  lands  would  be  filed  upon 
and  they  would  have  no  chance  of  getting  a  farm. 
Out  of  the  first  thousand  names  drawn  only  76  filed. 

At  the  opening  of  the  project  there  were  28,921 
acres  of  land,  containing  585  farm  units,  open  to  set- 
tlement. On  January  1,  1910,  there  had  been  352 
farm  units  entered  upon,  containing  20,905  acres. 
Settlers  largely  from  the  middle  and  western  states 
have  settled  on  the  lands  and  are  improving  them  as 
rapidly  as  possible.  Some  very  good  houses  and 
improvements  are  being  put  up  on  the  farms.  Dur- 
ing the  season  of  1908  about  4,100  acres  were  culti- 
vated and  during  the  season  of  1909  about  8,500 
acres  were  under  cultivation,  which  is  about  one-half 
the  irrigable  acreage  which  had  been  filed  upon  to 


ON  THE  LOWEE  YELLOWSTONE     171 

that  time.  In  1916  the  acreage  cropped  was  18,581 
and  the  value  of  crops  was  $489,071  or  $26.32  per 
acre. 

On  July  27,  1909,  a  severe  hailstorm  visited  the 
project  which  damaged  the  crops  to  an  amount  esti- 
mated at  $50,000.  A  good  showing  was  made  by 
most  of  the  settlers  the  first  season  on  their  land, 
with  much  better  results  the  second  season. 

One  hundred  and  fifty  miles  of  county  roads  have 
been  laid  out  and  the  county  has  spent  hundreds  of 
dollars  for  grading  and  improving  them  where  nec- 
essary. 

Nine  school  houses  were  built  during  the  season  of 
1908  and  schools  held  in  all  of  them.  In  1916  there 
were  eight  school  houses,  several  districts  having 
been  consolidated  and  graded. 

A  farmers'  club  has  been  organized  to  look  after 
the  general  interests  of  the  farmers  and  the  market- 
ing of  the  products. 

Several  church  organizations  have  been  started 
and  services  are  held  at  regular  intervals  at  six 
points. 

Before  laying  out  the  farm  units  on  the  Huntley 
Project  it  was  decided  to  have  a  town  site  every  five 
or  six  miles  on  the  two  transcontinental  railroad 
systems.  The  land  having  been  withdrawn  in 
proper  form,  it  was  easy  to  arrange  this  in  the  best 
manner.  The  two  railroads  involved  gave  their 
hearty  co-operation  and  have  put  in  switches  and 
passing  tracks  at  the  townsites  selected. 

In  planning  for  townsites  in  a  thickly  settled  irri- 
gated district,  it  was  considered  good  policy  to  have 


172        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

the  towns  close  together  to  insure  shipping  facil- 
ities and  to  give  a  chance  for  schools  and  supply 
points  close  to  the  farms.  In  connection  with  sev- 
eral of  the  townsites,  1,  2,  and  3  acre  tracts  have 
been  laid  off,  which  are  suitable  for  a  home  with  gar- 
den, orchard  and  cow  lot,  but  which  are  close  to  the 
business  of  the  town.  In  accordance  with  this  pol- 
icy the  townsites  of  Huntley,  Worden,  Osborn,  Bal- 
lantine,  Newton,  Anita,  Pompey's  Pillar  and  Bull 
Mountain  were  laid  out.  Huntley  and  Osborn  are 
on  both  railroads ;  Ballantine  and  Anita  on  the  Chi- 
cago, Burlington  and  Quincy  Eailway,  and  the  re- 
maining townsites  on  the  Northern  Pacific  Eailway. 
All  the  townsites  are  in  Yellowstone  County,  Mon- 
tana. 

The  townsites  were  surveyed  during  the  spring  of 
1907,  and  stone  monuments  were  set  at  the  inter- 
section of  the  principal  streets. 

It  was  decided  to  appraise  only  a  portion  of  each 
site  because  there  would  be  at  first  only  a  limited 
demand  for  lots,  for  whenever  at  any  particular 
townsite  the  growth  was  such  that  there  was  a  de- 
mand for  more  lots,  another  appraisement  could  be 
made  in  accordance  with  the  demonstrated  and  pros- 
pective value  of  the  remaining  lots  at  that  time. 

Huntley,  Ballantine,  Worden  and  Pompey's  Pillar 
have  been  the  most  progressive  towns  on  the  project. 
Their  citizens  are  investing  their  money  in  building 
permanent  homes. 

There  is  a  private  irrigation  project  owned  by  T. 
P.  Walters,  on  the  Huntley  Project.  It  irrigates  the 
farms  of  T.  P.  Walters  (330  acres),  E.  H.  Gagnon 
(70  acres)  and  F.  L.  Skillman  (170  acres).  It  is 


ON  THE  LOWER  YELLOWSTONE     173 

designed  to  divert  about  15  second-feet  of  water  from 
the  Yellowstone  Elver. 

Taken  as  a  whole  the  Huntley  Project  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  most  successful  one.  The  crops  have 
been  good.  The  principal  crops  raised  in  1915  were 
sugar  beets,  alfalfa,  wheat  and  oats,  in  the  order 
named.  The  four  crops  represent  about  89  per  cent, 
of  the  total  cropped  area  for  the  year,  and  they  re- 
turned 90  per  cent,  of  the  total  estimated  crop  value. 
There  were  5,402  acres  of  land  seeded  to  sugar  beets 
which  yielded  a  total  of  53,911  tons,  valued  at  $319,- 
153 ;  6,038  acres  of  alfalfa  yielded  15,010  tons,  valued 
at  $86,458 ;  2,869  acres  of  wheat  yielded  56,863  bush- 
els, valued  at  $49,471;  2,514  acres  of  oats  yielded 
75,319  bushels,  valued  at  $36,906.  The  remainder  of 
the  cropped  area  was  made  up  of  barley,  bluestem, 
beans,  corn,  cucumbers,  hay  and  vegetables,  all  of 
which  produced  well  and  good  returns  were  received. 
The  beet  crop  was  the  largest  shipment,  all  the  beets 
being  shipped  to  the  Billings  Sugar  Factory.  The 
contracts  which  the  Sugar  Company  entered  into 
with  the  growers  in  1915  returned  the  farmers  about 
$5.92  per  ton. 

The  increase  in  stock  values  for  the  year  1914 
amounted  to  $83,907.  This  increase  was  principally 
in  horses,  cattle  and  hogs.  There  was  an  increase  of 
342  horses,  1,077  head  of  cattle,  and  2,589  hogs. 
There  were  two  or  three  thousand  head  of  sheep 
fed  during  the  winter  months.  The  value  of  these 
sheep,  however,  is  not  included  in  the  above  increase 
as  most  of  the  sheep  were  fed  under  contract  and  at 
the  close  of  the  feeding  season  were  turned  back  to 
the  owners.  The  sheep  that  were  fed  during  the 


174       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

winter  1912-1913  in  most  instances  brought  good  re- 
tarns  to  the  feeders  in  cash,  besides  increasing  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.  The  principal  increase  in  cattle 
was  in  dairy  stock.  Three  carloads  of  Holstein  cat- 
tle were  shipped  onto  the  project  early  in  the  spring, 
and  other  cattle  were  bought  locally.  The  farmers 
are  gradually  going  more  and  more  into  the  dairying 
and  stock  business.  The  principal  markets  for  stock 
are  Chicago,  St.  Paul,  Omaha  and  Seattle. 

At  the  beginning  of  1914  forty-three  farm  units, 
comprising  1,700  acres  of  irrigable  land,  were  open 
to  entry.  After  the  Second  Unit  of  the  project  was 
thrown  open  this  number  was  increased  by  the  addi- 
tion of  twenty-four  public  farm  units,  comprising 
981  acres  of  irrigable  land,  and  of  approximately 
nine  private  farms,  embracing  833  acres.  Thus  the 
total  number  of  farm  units  open  to  entry  during  the 
year  amounted  to  sixty-seven  involving  3,515  acres 
of  irrigable  land.  At  the  close  of  the  year  fifty-two 
farm  units  were  open  to  homestead  entry,  fifteen 
units  having  been  filed  upon. 

The  unentered  public  lands  on  the  first  unit  of 
the  project  lie  chiefly  in  the  vicinity  of  Newton,  Mon- 
tana. The  progress  of  settlement  on  these  lands  is 
not  rapid  for  the  reason  that  the  soil  in  most  in- 
stances is  clay  containing  an  abundance  of  alkali 
salts,  which  makes  the  units  undesirable,  and  it  is 
believed  that  a  number  of  years  will  pass  before  the 
units  are  all  filed  upon.  It  has  been  demonstrated 
on  similar  lands  that  from  five  to  six  years  of  inten- 
sive cultivation  are  required  to  bring  the  land  into  a 
profitable  productive  state.  The  greater  portion  of 
this  class  of  land  has  been  settled  upon  by  foreigners, 


ON  THE  LOWER  YELLOWSTONE     175 

who,  in  addition  to  farming  their  own  units,  contract 
as  beet  help  on  the  better  class  of  land,  and  in  this 
way  are  able  to  make  a  living  and  finally  bring  their 
units  into  a  productive  state. 

The  present  Project  Manager  is  E.  H.  Fifield,  with 
offices  at  Huntley,  Montana. 


CHAPTEE  XV 

AN"   INTERNATIONAL   PEOBLEM.      THE   MILK   RIVER 
PROJECT,    MONTANA 

There  are  some  rather  curious  things  to  be  noted 
on  the  map  of  the  northern  boundary  of  the  United 
States,  especially  the  way  in  which  the  rivers  flow 
with  reference  to  this  boundary.  In  older  countries, 
the  limits  of  the  nations  were  established  largely  by 
natural  features,  by  mountain  ranges  or  rivers ;  but 
with  us  the  division  between  two  great  bodies  of 
English-speaking  people  is  a  straight  line  arbitrar- 
ily located,  extending  directly  west,  crossing  plains 
and  mountains.  This  typifies  the  arbitrary  charac- 
ter of  our  political  division.  The  plains  on  each  side 
of  the  line  are  identical ;  Nature  offers  no  more  dif- 
ferences than  do  the  ideals  of  the  citizens  thus  sepa- 
rated from  each  other.  Looking  closely  we  see  that 
some  of  the  rivers  arising  in  the  United  States  flow 
for  a  time  in  Canada  and  then  return.  In  the  same 
way  the  people  of  one  country  sojourn  for  a  time  in 
the  other  and  may  come  back  or  possibly  remain. 

There  is  one  river,  the  Milk,  which  is  particularly 
notable,  not  because  of  its  size  but  rather  because  of 
its  insignificance  as  regards  volume.  Its  tributaries 
flow  easterly  along  or  near  the  border,  crossing  and 
recrossing,  being  partly  in  northern  Montana  or  in 
the  Canadian  provinces  of  Alberta  and  Saskatche- 
wan. It  occupies  in  places  a  broad  valley ;  for  much 

176 


AN  INTEENATIONAL  PEOBLEM      177 

of  the  year  it  is  nearly  dry  but  occasionally  there  are 
destructive  floods.  Following  up  along  the  bound- 
ary to  the  headwaters,  we  are  surprised  to  find  that 
these  stop  short  just  before  the  high  mountains  are 
reached.  Unlike  most  streams  of  that  part  of  the 
world,  it  has  no  connection  with  the  waters  from  the 
snowy  peaks  which  dominate  the  western  horizon. 
Here  is  a  very  curious  phenomenon — a  long  river 
occupying  a  broad  valley  and  shut  off  from  its  nat- 
ural source  of  supply. 

The  valley  with  its  fertile  lands  early  attracted 
settlement,  and  the  pioneers  soon  built  little  irri- 
gating canals,  increasing  these  until  the  capacities 
have  exceeded  the  low  water  flow  of  Milk  Eiver. 
The  man  higher  up  the  stream,  although  second  in 
right,  had  the  first  opportunity  of  getting  the  cov- 
eted water.  Controversies  arose  and  the  further 
development  was  retarded,  more  money  being  spent 
in  litigation  than  in  actual  irrigation.  All  of  the 
time  the  people  interested  had  their  thoughts  fixed 
on  these  high  mountains  to  the  west  with  their 
abundant  supply,  and  they  began  to  ask  why  they 
could  not  get  their  portion  of  the  abundance  from  the 
snowy  fields  to  the  west.  How  did  it  happen  that 
their  river  did  not  obtain  its  proper  share? 

The  reason  for  the  scanty  supply  in  Milk  Eiver  is 
quite  evident  to  the  geologist.  In  comparatively 
recent  times,  as  the  age  of  the  earth  goes,  a  great  ice 
sheet  or  series  of  ice  sheets  covered  this  land,  pushed 
southward  the  rocks,  gravel,  sands  and  clays;  on 
retreating  it  left  behind  a  great  unassorted  mass  of 
dirt  which  encumbered  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 
obliterated  the  former  water  courses.  One  of  these 


178        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

great  masses  of  materials  which  had  come  from  the 
north  was  left  lodged  as  a  series  of  hills  or  a  ridge 
directly  east  of  and  in  front  of  the  main  Eocky 
Mountain  range,  so  that  the  streams  flowing  easterly 
from  the  mountains  instead  of  continuing  down  the 
gentle  slope  of  the  great  plains  were  diverted  and 
turned  abruptly  towards  the  north,  flowing  finally 
into  Hudson  Bay  instead  of  into  the  Mississippi 
Eiver  drainage. 

Seeing  the  conditions  resulting  from  this  glacial 
action,  the  geologist  and  the  engineer  were  asked 
whether  man  could  repair  the  damages  done  by  the 
ice  sheet  and  cut  through  this  range  of  hills,  restor- 
ing to  the  plains'  streams  the  headwaters  which 
in  past  geologic  ages  probably  belonged  to  them. 
From  the  engineering  standpoint  this  was  compara- 
tively easy  though  expensive.  A  greater  obstacle 
was  found  in  the  artificial  or  political  conditions, 
because  the  boundary  was  drawn  in  such  a  way  as  to 
make  it  impossible  for  either  Canada  or  the  United 
States  to  utilize  the  natural  advantages  without  the 
consent  of  the  other.  It  was  physically  possible  to 
take  the  streams  which  flow  easterly  from  the  Eocky 
Mountains  and  form  the  St.  Mary  and  divert  them 
easterly  through  a  canal  which,  heading  in  the  United 
States,  would  swing  around  into  Canada.  It  was 
also  possible  at  somewhat  greater  expense  to  build 
such  a  canal  in  the  United  States  and  drop  the  wa- 
ters taken  from  the  St.  Mary  Eiver  into  the  head  of 
Milk  Eiver,  but  this  water  would  then  flow  into  Can- 
ada before  coming  back  into  the  United  States.  It 
was  also  possible  at  still  greater  expense  to  continue 
the  canal  wholly  in  the  United  States  and  drop  the 


AN  INTEENATIONAL  PEOBLEM       179 

water  in  the  streams  which  would  keep  south  of  the 
boundary. 

All  of  these  conditions  formed  the  subject  of  much 
discussion.  It  was  assumed  that  if  the  United 
States  built  a  canal  from  St.  Mary  to  Milk  Eiver, 
the  Canadians  must  permit  the  water  to  come  down 
the  natural  channel  and  that  they  could  not  prevent 
it  from  coming  back  into  the  United  States  for  use 
in  the  Lower  Milk  Eiver  Valley.  Their  reply  to  this 
was  the  actual  construction  of  a  canal  from  Milk 
Eiver  in  Canada  which  could  take  and  keep  in  Can- 
ada any  waters  which  might  be  diverted  by  the 
United  States  into  the  head  of  Milk  Eiver.  Through 
many  years  surveys,  conferences,  and  discussions 
were  had.  In  these  the  engineers  of  the  Eeclama- 
tion  Service  called  upon  by  the  settlers  along  the 
Milk  Eiver  were  active,  not  only  in  making  surveys 
and  estimates  of  various  alternative  projects,  but 
in  preparing  drafts  of  agreement  with  the  Cana- 
dians. Finally,  it  was  agreed  that  the  United 
States  would  take  its  chances  and  begin  construc- 
tion of  distributing  works  in  the  Lower  Milk  Eiver 
Valley  to  handle  the  water  which  was  available,  in  the 
hopes  that  a  satisfactory  solution  might  be  had  of  the 
international  problem. 

The  Ambassador  from  Great  Britain,  the  Hon. 
James  Bryce,  took  a  large  interest  in  this  matter, 
and  partly  through  his  efforts  to  promote  amicable 
relations,  a  treaty  was  negotiated  "to  prevent  dis- 
putes regarding  the  use  of  boundary  waters  and  to 
settle  all  questions  which  are  now  pending  between 
the  United  States  and  the  Dominion  of  Canada." 
This  was  signed  on  January  11, 1909,  and  marked  the 


180        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

culmination  of  many  years  of  discussion  and  nego- 
tiations. Meantime,  as  before  stated,  construction 
on  various  features  of  the  project  had  been  begun 
so  that  these  had  fairly  well  progressed  before  the 
treaty  was  signed. 

The  second  difficulty  to  be  overcome  was  the  mat- 
ter of  sufficient  funds  for  prosecution  of  the  work. 
The  estimated  cost  of  the  work  was  about  seven  mil- 
lion dollars  and  the  million  dollars  set  aside  in 
1905  was  for  preliminaries.  In  1910,  Congress  set 
aside  the  money  necessary  to  carry  on  a  portion  of 
the  work.  The  last  obstacles  were  the  adjustment 
of  water  appropriations  in  the  river  so  as  to  settle 
the  ownership  of  the  waters  and  as  fully  fifty  per 
cent,  of  the  lands  were  privately  owned,  it  was  nec- 
essary to  bind  them  to  stand  security  for  the  expend- 
itures the  Government  contemplated  making.  It 
was  necessary  to  make  sure  that  the  water  of  Milk 
Eiver,  including  natural  runoff  and  that  diverted 
from  St.  Mary  Lakes,  should  be  sufficient  to  supply 
those  who  had  heretofore  appropriated  water,  as 
well  as  for  the  government  canals.  Private  rights 
were  definitely  stated  in  a  vested  water-right  con- 
tract, which  fixed  the  amount  of  appropriations  and 
the  lands  to  which  they  attached,  and  the  United 
States  was  assured  of  a  sufficient  supply  for  its  work. 
Then  it  was  necessary  for  the  lands  in  private  own- 
ership in  the  Valley  to  be  bound  to  take  water  and 
return  payments  for  construction,  operation  and 
maintenance.  These  matters  were  finally  adjusted 
and  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  approved  the  con- 
struction of  the  project  in  1912. 

It  must  be  said  that  a  certain  amount  of  impa- 


AN  INTEENATIONAL  PKOBLEM      181 

tience  was  naturally  exhibited  by  inhabitants  of  the 
Valley  because  of  the  length  of  time,  1902  to  1912, 
which  elapsed  before  the  larger  work  of  the  project 
began.  But  in  view  of  the  difficulties  involved,  it 
can  be  seen  that  the  work  could  not  have  proceeded 
more  rapidly. 

While  the  difficulties  were  being  adjusted,  some 
work  on  the  project  proceeded,  notably  the  con- 
struction of  a  dam  in  the  Milk  Biver  near  Dodson, 
Montana,  and  the  completion  of  the  first  unit  of  the 
project,  with  canals  for  watering  7,800  acres  of  land. 

The  greater  activity  on  the  project  began  in  1912. 
At  the  present  time  the  system  has  been  carried  to  a 
point  where  one-fourth  of  the  220,000  acres  of  land 
in  the  project  is  under  completed  canals.  A  second 
large  concrete  dam  is  completed,  near  Vandalia, 
Montana.  Until  1916  the  system  was  dependent 
upon  the  flood  waters  of  Milk  Eiver,  but  work  on  the 
St.  Mary  Canal  is  completed,  and  these  mountain 
waters,  travelling  500  miles  through  natural  and 
artificial  channels,  will  bring  a  perpetual  stream  of 
water  and  a  continuous  lease  of  prosperity  to  the 
Valley. 

The  Dodson  Diversion  Dam  is  located  46  miles 
below  the  proposed  Chinook  diversion  and  3  miles 
west  of  Dodson.  The  dam  is  a  rock-filled  timber- 
crib,  19  feet  high  and  319  feet  long,  the  downstream 
face  of  which  is  composed  of  10-inch  timbers  pro- 
tected by  railroad  rails.  The  north  abutment  is  of 
similar  structure,  while  that  of  the  south  side  is  of 
reinforced  concrete.  On  top  of  the  dam  concrete 
piers  are  built  for  a  movable  crest  which  will  add 
six  feet  to  the  height  of  the  dam  when  completed. 


182       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

In  connection  with  the  construction  of  this  dam  it 
was  necessary  to  raise  the  tracks  of  the  Great  North- 
ern Eailway  for  a  distance  of  4  miles  and  to  protect, 
by  riprapping,  the  embankment  from  erosion.  In 
addition,  2,425  acres  of  private  and  Indian  lands 
were  purchased  for  flowage  rights. 

The  Dodson  South  Canal  heads  here  with  a  ca- 
pacity of  900  second-feet.  It  ends  at  Nelson  Eeser- 
voir,  44  miles  away,  with  a  capacity  of  500  second- 
feet,  furnishing  on  the  way  water  for  the  irrigation 
of  42,500  acres,  of  which  26,000  are  under  its  branch 
canals,  the  Ashfield  and  Bowdoin.  The  headworks 
consist  of  a  concrete  structure  with  15  openings  4 
feet  by  5  feet.  The  principal  features  of  this  sys- 
tem which  have  been  completed  are  the  Peoples 
Creek  dikes  and  channels  for  the  diversion  of  that 
creek,  so  as  to  discharge  above  Dodson  Dam,  and 
also  to'  protect  private  irrigation  plants  on  the  Fort 
Belknap  Indian  Eeservation;  the  Point  of  Eocks 
equalizing  reservoir,  of  830  acre-feet  capacity;  the 
wasteway  at,  and  siphon  across,  Alkali  Creek,  which 
consists  of  three  lines  of  reinforced  concrete  pipe 
7.5  feet  in  diameter;  the  headworks  of  Bowdoin 
Canal;  the  spillway  into  Lake  Bowdoin;  and  the 
canal-,  lateral-,  and  waste-water  systems  for  the 
irrigation  of  15,000  acres. 

A  portion  of  the  Main  Canal  was  excavated  in 
1908  and  1909  under  the  co-operative  plan  of  con- 
tract between  the  Service  and  the  Water  Users'  As- 
sociation. The  remainder  of  the  excavation  for  the 
first  nine  miles  was  done  by  small  contracts  and  a 
portion  by  the  Service.  The  latter  also  built  the 
structures  and  laterals  for  the  irrigation  of  7,800 


AN  INTEENATIONAL  PEOBLEM      183 

acres.  The  balance  of  the  work  on  this  canal  system 
was  built  by  private  contracts. 

The  Dodson  North  Canal  heads  at  Dodson  Dam 
with  a  capacity  of  200  second-feet,  and  in  a  length 
of  29  miles  irrigates  12,000  acres  on  the  south  side 
of  the  Milk  Eiver  between  Dodson  and  a  point  five 
miles  below  Malta.  The  principal  features  of  this 
canal-system  which  have  been  built  are  the  concrete 
headworks,  which  include  four  steel  gates  4  by  4  feet 
in  size;  the  siphon  across  Exeter  Creek,  which  is  a 
reinforced  concrete  pipe  5  feet  4  inches  in  diameter ; 
and  the  canal-,  lateral-,  and  waste-water  systems  for 
the  irrigation  of  the  land. 

Nelson  Eeservoir,  located  about  15  miles  north- 
east from  Malta,  is  a  natural  basin,  the  storage 
capacity  of  which  is  increased  by  building  dams 
across  depressions  in  the  rim.  At  present  these 
dams  secure  a  capacity  of  27,000  acre-feet,  but  as 
required  they  will  be  enlarged  and  raised  by  suc- 
cessive stages  to  give  an  ultimate  capacity  of  132,000 
acre-feet.  The  reservoir  is  fed  by  Dodson  South 
Canal,  and  the  stored  water  will  be  used  for  the  ir- 
rigation of  about  50,000  acres  under  the  Nelson  Ees- 
ervoir North  and  South  Canals,  and,  if  required, 
for  lands  under  the  Vandalia  South  Canal,  the  stored 
water  to  be  discharged  into  Milk  Eiver  down  a  con- 
crete pipe-drop  and  again  diverted  at  Vandalia  Dam. 

Nelson  Eeservoir  South  Canal,  with  a  capacity  of 
260  second-feet,  heads  in  Nelson  Eeservoir  and  will 
irrigate  22,000  acres  of  land  in  Beaver  Creek  Valley, 
near  Ashfield,  Saco,  Beaverton  and  Hinsdale. 

The  Vandalia  Diversion  Dam  is  66  miles  below  the 
Dodson  diversion.  It  consists  of  a  reinforced  con- 


184        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

crete  main  overflow  dam,  with  fixed  crest,  and  an  au- 
tomatic movable  crest,  by  which  the  water  can  be 
raised  an  additional  6  feet.  Two  bridge  piers,  which 
support  steel  bridges  for  the  movable  crest,  divide 
the  overflow  of  this  dam  into  three  110-foot  lengths. 
The  abutments  are  reinforced  retaining  walls  having 
a  maximum  height  of  51  feet.  The  entire  structure 
is  supported  on  piles  and  protected  at  the  lower  and 
upper  edges  by  rows  of  sheet-piling.  Flanking  the 
dam  to  the  north  there  is  an  auxiliary  spillway  4 
feet  high  and  1,200  feet  long.  This  spillway  is  also 
built  of  reinforced  concrete. 

The  Vandalia  South  Canal  heads  at  Vandalia  di- 
version with  a  capacity  of  300  second-feet,  and  irri- 
gates 22,540  acres  of  land  on  the  south  side  of  Milk 
Eiver  between  Vandalia  and  a  point  opposite 
Nashua.  The  headgates  are  in  the  south  abutment. 
The  principal  features  which  have  been  built  are  the 
metal  flumes,  railway  culverts,  concrete-lined  sec- 
tions at  Vandalia  Point,  the  reinforced  concrete  si- 
phons across  Antelope,  Brazil,  and  Willow  Creeks, 
and  the  canal-,  lateral-,  and  waste-water  systems  for 
irrigation. 

St.  Mary 's  Lake  is  to  be  enlarged  and  improved  to 
an  area  of  6,910  acres  and  a  capacity  of  124,000 
acre-feet.  The  dam  is  an  earth  fill,  with  a  maximum 
height  of  30  feet,  and  a  length  of  crest  of  2,000  feet. 
The  length  of  the  spillway  is  500  feet,  and  its  eleva- 
tion 20  feet  above  the  stream  bed.  The  canal  is  29 
miles  long,  with  an  ultimate  capacity  of  850  second- 
feet,  and  is  to  carry  the  water  of  St.  Mary  Eiver 
across  the  divide  to  the  headwaters  of  Milk  Eiver. 

The   Sherburne  Lakes  Dam  is  an  earthen  em- 


AN  INTEBNATIONAL  PEOBLEM      185 

bankment,  83  feet  high  and  925  feet  long.  A  con- 
crete-lined spillway  channel  located  at  the  north  end 
of  the  dam  has  a  capacity  of  8,000  second-feet,  with 
a  free-board  of  9  feet  on  the  dam. 

Keclamation  makes  possible  a  great  future  for 
the  valley  of  the  Milk  Eiver.  Realization  will  de- 
pend upon  the  use  the  people  make  of  the  possibil- 
ities. Formerly  the  region  was  thought  forever 
doomed  to  mediocre  production  because  of  dearth  of 
water.  Settlements  were  scattering  and  small,  as 
they  always  are  in  a  range  country.  The  towns 
were  about  as  wild  and  woolly  as  the  country.  Most 
of  their  trade  depended  on  the  cattle  ranches  and 
their  times  of  principal  life  and  activity  were  the 
cattle  shipping  days,  when  cowboys  owned  the 
streets  and  raised  mighty  disturbances.  But  a 
change  has  gradually  come  about,  and  the  opening  of 
reclamation  work  altered  things  still  more  remark- 
ably. Ditch  contractors  have  imported  hundreds 
of  labourers  and  the  results  of  the  activity  are 
shared  by  merchants,  hotel-men  and  business  of 
every  sort. 

However,  the  present  impetus  given  to  trade  is 
of  small  importance  beside  the  permanent  pros- 
perity this  reclamation  may  bring  to  the  Valley. 
Where  formerly  production  was  uncertain,  in  the 
future  few  failures  on  the  Valley's  irrigated  lands 
need  occur.  Business  and  industry  that  have  been 
established  can  depend  on  a  steady  growth,  while  in 
the  past  they  were  subject  to  disappointing  fluctua- 
tions due  to  uncertainty  of  returns  and  markets. 
Such  uncertainty  stunted  industrial  growth  and  kept 
it  confined  to  a  few  lines.  It  retarded  the  increase 


186       EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

in  population,  in  prosperity  and  in  the  necessaries 
and  luxuries  that  rightfully  belong  to  people  of  the 
present  day.  But  the  future  should  hold  greater 
possibilities.  The  population  will  increase  and  the 
new-comers  will  be  of  the  best  class.  Agricultural 
production  will  expand  steadily,  money  will  come 
into  the  valley  in  an  increasing  amount  and  the  facil- 
ities for  enlarging  the  sphere  of  life  and  enhancing 
the  pleasure  of  existence  will  multiply  in  number. 

In  the  past  the  principal  agricultural  products  of 
the  Milk  Eiver  Valley  have  been  wild  hay  and  some 
alfalfa,  grain  and  vegetables.  These  were  produced 
mostly  for  the  local  markets.  With  the  advent  of 
the  government  canals,  and  because  of  their  cost  and 
the  increasing  value  of  land,  it  is  hardly  probable 
that  the  raising  of  wild  hay  and  grains  will  be  eco- 
nomically feasible  after  a  few  years,  for  the  returns 
from  alfalfa,  vegetables  and  sugar  beets,  and  the 
raising  of  cattle  and  hogs  will  yield  the  best  returns. 
The  production  of  sugar  beets  and  the  manufacture 
of  sugar  will  become  a  lucrative  industry  in  the  Val- 
ley. Some  very  good  crops  of  this  plant  have 
already  been  had  and  the  yield  has  been  good,  with 
a  high  percentage  of  sugar. 

The  Milk  Eiver  Valley  offers  excellent  opportu- 
nity for  persons  of  industry,  determination  and  some 
capital.  Lands  are  cheap  and  can  be  obtained  on 
advantageous  terms.  It  must  not  be  thought,  how- 
ever, that  wealth  awaits  the  settler  with  no  finan- 
cial backing  and  without  hard  labour.  Irrigation 
farming  involves  a  greater  outlay  of  money  and 
effort  than  other  agriculture,  but  on  the  average  the 
returns  should  be  commensurately  greater.  The 


AN  INTEKNATIONAL  PEOBLEM      187 

land  must  be  worked  and  levelled,  farm  laterals  must 
be  dug,  and  in  the  application  of  water  to  the  soil 
care,  vigilance  and  labour  are  necessary.  All  this 
involves  expense. 

The  settler  coming  into  the  Valley  should  be  able 
to  erect  necessary  buildings,  plough  and  level  the 
land  and  prepare  it  for  irrigation.  He  will  have  to 
be  able  to  meet  any  payments  necessary  on  the  pur- 
chase price  of  the  land.  If  his  land  is  under  con- 
structed canal  and  water  is  available,  he  may  obtain 
water  until  the  project  is  declared  open,  on  a  rental 
basis  of  $1  per  acre-foot.  For  this  latter  reason  the 
present  is  a  very  advantageous  time  to  obtain  land 
under  canals,  because  the  settler  can  get  irrigation 
water  in  quantity  desired  and  it  will  be  some  time 
before  payments  on  the  building  charges  begin.  He 
may  therefore  have  time  to  get  his  farm  and  finan- 
ces established  before  the  greater  expense  begins. 
The  building  charge  will  be  divided  into  twenty  an- 
nual instalments,  payable  without  interest,  so  for  the 
ordinarily  prosperous  farmer,  these  payments,  to- 
gether with  the  annual  operation  and  maintenance 
charges,  will  not  be  a  great  burden. 

The  present  Project  Manager  for  the  St.  Mary's 
Storage  unit  is  E.  M.  Snell,  with  office  at  Browning, 
Montana,  while  the  Project  Manager  of  the  Milk 
Eiver  Project  as  a  whole  is  Geo.  E.  Stratton,  with 
office  at  Malta,  Montana. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

IN   THE  LAND   OF  THE  RIVER  OF  THE  SUN". 
THE   SUN   RIVER  PROJECT,   MONTANA 

Ever  since  Lewis  and  Clark  made  their  memorable 
trip  across  the  continent  to  spy  out  the  land  as  far 
as  the  then  unknown  Oregon,  the  great  prairies  have 
exercised  a  fascination  over  the  minds  of  men 
equalled  only*  by  the  lure  of  the  trackless  and  sun- 
scorched  deserts.  At  the  extreme  northwestern 
boundary  of  this  rolling  prairie  country,  in  Montana, 
long,  gently  sloping  plateaus,  traversed  by  streams 
that  have  relatively  wide  valleys,  rise  by  successive 
benches  until  they  terminate  in  rolling  glacial  hills 
and  hollows  at  the  foot  of  the  Continental  Divide. 
A  distinctive  feature  of  these  plateaus  is  that  their 
summits  appear  as  isolated  buttes  or  long  irregular 
ridges,  which  are  eroded  remnants  of  other  and 
higher  benches  which  now  have  entirely  disappeared. 

Located  between  the  summit  of  the  Lewis  Eange 
of  the  Eocky  Mountains  on  the  west,  the  Dearborn 
and  Missouri  rivers  on  the  south  and  Teton  Eiver  on 
the  north,  extending  easterly  as  far  as  Fort  Ben- 
ton,  in  the  northern  portion,  and  Ulm  Station  on  the 
Montana  Central  Eailway  in  the  southern  portion, 
is  the  Sun  Eiver  Project.  It  covers,  approximately, 
1,500,000  acres,  excluding  the  mountainous  portion, 
the  greater  part  comprising  rolling  prairie  country 
and  benches  of  uniform  slope.  One  of  these,  Green- 

188 


THE  EIVEE  OF  THE  SUN  189 

fields  bench,  is  a  practically  unbroken  stretch  of  70,- 
000  acres. 

The  river  bottom  lands  are  mostly  farmed  under 
small  irrigation  systems  constructed  by  the  ranch- 
ers. A  few  larger  systems,  covering  from  3,000 
to  25,000  acres,  have  been  in  operation  for  some 
time. 

Eising  on  the  Continental  Divide  the  Sun  Eiver 
gathers  water  almost  sufficient  for  the  irrigation  of 
this  entire  area,  a  princely  domain  vast  enough  to 
quicken  the  pulses  of  hundreds  of  men  to  the  possi- 
bilities of  the  independent  life  of  the  farmer  or 
rancher.  The  Sun  Eiver  flows  southeasterly  to  its 
confluence  with  the  South  Fork,  thence  due  east,  emp- 
tying into  Missouri  Eiver  at  Great  Falls.  Deep 
Creek,  the  south  fork  of  the  Teton,  is  also  utilized. 
The  watershed  of  Sun  Eiver  and  Deep  Creek  com- 
prises 1,140  square  miles  of  mountainous  country, 
the  altitude  varying  from  4,500  to  9,000.  This  is 
covered,  to  greater  or  less  extent,  by  coniferous  for- 
ests which  serve  as  natural  reservoirs,  regulating 
the  run-off  of  the  district.  The  numerous  streams 
of  this  drainage  gather  a  large  amount  of  water  from 
the  melting  snow,  which  will  be  stored  in  large  reser- 
voirs. 

The  average  annual  run-off  of  the  watershed  area 
is  estimated  at  700,000  acre-feet.  The  rainfall  of 
the  irrigable  area  averages  twelve  inches,  the  greater 
part  of  which  falls  during  May  and  June. 

The  present  approved  plan  of  construction  of  the 
project  contemplates  the  irrigation  of  about  16,000 
acres  of  land  largely  in  the  abandoned  Fort  ShaW 
Military  Eeservation  in  Sun  Eiver  Valley  by  direct 


190       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

diversion  from  Sun  Eiver  into  the  Fort  Shaw  Canal, 
and  the  irrigation  of  about  100,000  acres  of  bench 
land  on  the  north  side  of  Sun  Kiver  by  the  diversion 
of  the  waters  of  the  North  Fork  of  Sun  Eiver 
through  the  Pishkun  Supply  and  Sun  Eiver  Slope 
Canals. 

The  Fort  Shaw  Canal  was  completed  in  1908  and 
the  system  has  been  operated  each  year  since  1909. 
Works  are  at  present  under  construction  for  the  ir- 
rigation of  25,000  acres  on  the  Greenfields  Bench 
north  of  Sun  Eiver.  The  main  features  of  the 
works  required  for  the  irrigation  of  the  above-men- 
tioned 25,000  acres  are  the  Sun  Eiver  Diversion 
Dam,  132  ft.  in  height,  the  Pishkun  Supply  Canal,  12 
miles  long,  with  three  concrete  lined  tunnels  700  to 
2,300  ft.  long,  a  wood  stave  pipe  crossing  of  Sun 
Eiver,  and  concrete  pipe  drops  into  Arnold  Coulee 
and  Pishkun  Eeservoir;  the  Sun  Eiver  Slope  Canal 
34  miles  long  with  9,000  ft.  of  concrete  lined  canal, 
and  the  two  high  concrete  pipe  drops  into  Big  Cou- 
lee; and  the  Distribution  System  delivering  water 
direct  to  the  farms.  The  Sun  Eiver  Diversion  Dam, 
the  main  canals  with  their  tunnels  and  other  struc- 
tures and  the  pipe  crossing  of  Sun  Eiver  are  prac- 
tically completed. 

Further  development  of  the  100,000  acres  on  the 
north  side  of  Sun  Eiver  contemplates  the  storage  of 
waters  of  the  North  Fork  of  Sun  Eiver  by  a  ma- 
sonry dam  on  the  stream  itself.  Several  sites  are 
available  and  investigations  are  now  being  conducted 
to  determine  the  most  feasible  location  for  the  dam. 
The  surplus  waters  of  Willow  Creek  are  now  stored 
by  an  earth-fill  dam  on  the  creek  forming  a  reservoir 


SITE  OF  DIVERSION  DAM,  SUN  RIVER  CANYON,  AUGUST,  1907 
SUN  RIVER  PROJECT,  MONTANA 


THE  EIVEE  OF  THE  SUN  191 

of  16,700  acre-feet  capacity,  which  is  available  for 
supplying  water  to  either  the  Fort  Shaw  Unit  or 
prior  rights  on  Sun  Eiver. 

The  project  is  traversed  by  three  lines  of  the  Great 
Northern  Eailway,  already  in  operation,  and  by  one 
line  of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  Eailway, 
now  under  construction.  One  line  of  the  Great 
Northern  runs  northerly  and  southerly  through  the 
eastern  end  of  the  project  and  will  be  a  part  of  a 
main  through  line  from  Texas  to  Spokane  and  Pa- 
cific Coast  points.  A  second  line  of  the  Great 
Northern  runs  through  the  Sun  Eiver  Valley  from 
Great  Falls  to  the  western  end  of  the  project.  The 
third  Great  Northern  line  branches  from  the  first  in 
the  east  central  part  of  the  project  and  runs  north- 
westerly to  Choteau  on  the  northern  boundary. 
The  line  of  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul 
Eailway  runs  from  Great  Falls  northwesterly. 

The  elevation  of  the  lands  embraced  within  the 
project  is  from  3,500  to  4,000  feet  above  sea  level, 
with  an  average  elevation  of  about  3,700  feet.  The 
temperature  varies  from  40°  below  zero  to  100° 
Fahr.  above.  The  extreme  low  temperatures  are  un- 
usual and  when  they  do  occur  ordinarily  continue  for 
a  short  time  only.  The  dry  atmosphere  renders  ex- 
tremes in  temperature  much  less  disagreeable  than 
less  extreme  temperatures  in  the  humid  regions. 
The  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  southwest,  which 
tend  to  modify  the  severity  of  the  winters.  The 
average  rainfall  is  about  11  inches,  a  large  portion 
of  which  occurs  usually  during  the  months  of  April, 
May  and  June. 

The  climate  of  Montana,  contrary  to  popular  east- 


192       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

ern  impression,  is  milder  than  portrayed.  The 
prevalence  of  the  chinook  wind  makes  the  winter 
months  compare  favourably  with  states  further 
south.  In  past  years,  before  the  encroachment  of 
the  farmer,  stock  ranged  in  the  open  the  entire  sea- 
son without  care  or  feed  other  than  the  natural  buf- 
falo-grass which  cures  on  the  stem.  Of  course,  this 
method  of  caring  for  stock  is  to  be  condemned  but 
shows  the  exceedingly  favourable  climatic  conditions 
that  make  such  a  method  possible.  The  snowfall  is 
light  and  does  not  lie  on  the  ground  any  length  of 
time,  being  taken  off  by  the  chinook  winds. 

A  natural  growth  of  short  buffalo-  and  gramma- 
grass  and  a  wheat-grass  locally  called  "blue- joint" 
covers  the  entire  range.  This  furnished,  in  the  past, 
practically  the  only  feed  that  made  Montana  range 
steers  the  most  desirable  on  the  eastern  market.  A 
fair  showing,  during  the  last  few  years,  has  been 
made  on  this  soil  without  irrigation,  some  farmers 
getting  twenty-eight  bushels  of  wheat  and  fifty  bush- 
els of  oats,  by  careful  conservation  of  the  precipita- 
tion, but  owing  to  the  very  light  rainfall  during  long 
periods,  this  method  meets  with  only  indifferent  suc- 
cess. Farmers  coming  from  the  eastern  states, 
where  twenty  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre  is  a  good 
yield,  are  incredulous  when  told  of  a  yield  more 
than  double  that  quantity. 

The  commercially  profitable  products  that  can  be 
grown  on  the  project  comprise  practically  all  of  the 
northern  grown  grains,  grasses,  fruits  and  vege- 
tables. A  few  of  the  less  hardy  fruits  and  vegetables 
require  special  care,  which  necessarily  excludes 
them  from  the  profitable  list,  but  as  better  methods 


SIMM'S  CREEK  PRESSURE  PIPE,  FORT  SHAW  UNIT 
SUN  RIVER  PROJECT,  MONTANA 


METHOD  OF  REINFORCEMENT  OF  SIMM'S  CREEK  PIPE 
SUN  RIVER  PROJECT,  MONTANA 


THE  EIVEB  OF  THE  SUN  193 

of  cultivation  are  discovered,  these  will  also  be  prof- 
itably added  to  the  list. 

Alfalfa  is  highly  successful,  as  are  also  the  grains, 
—wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  etc.  Fattening  of  cattle, 
sheep  and  hogs  on  alfalfa  with  grain  is  becoming  a 
large  factor  in  the  development  of  this  region,  as 
good  prices  prevail  in  the  local  market  for  meat- 
stuffs. 

Sugar  beets  produce  an  average  of  twenty  tons 
per  acre.  Samples  were  taken  from  ten  patches  of 
beets  which  were  sent  to  the  Billings  Sugar  Com- 
pany, Billings,  Montana,  for  analysis.  The  tests 
showed  an  average  of  17.7  per  cent,  of  sugar  and 
86.2  per  cent,  of  purity.  The  Amalgamated  Sugar 
Company  of  Ogden,  Utah,  made  a  careful  inspection 
of  the  lands  of  the  project,  soon  after  work  began 
and  gave  assurance  that  it  would  ultimately  support 
seven  sugar  factories. 

The  small  fruits,  such  as  strawberries,  currants, 
gooseberries,  and  raspberries,  are  now  successfully 
grown  in  this  immediate  vicinity,  and  these  grow 
wild  in  the  valley  as  well  as  huckleberries,  sarvice- 
berries,  and  wild  cherries.  Tame  cherries  and  crab- 
apples  do  well,  and  enough  is  known  of  growing 
standard  varieties  of  apples  to  warrant  the  asser- 
tion that  they  will  be  a  success. 
^  The  largest  market,  close  to  the  project,  is  Great 
Falls,  a  city  of  probably  15,000  people.  The  big 
smelters  of  the  Boston  &  Montana  Company  are 
located  here,-— this  with  the  immense  water-power 
available,  much  of  which  is  now  under  process  of 
development  by  the  construction  of  two  large  dams 
in  the  vicinity  of  Great  Falls,  gives  this  city  a  bright 


194        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

future  and  will  provide  a  market  at  good  prices  for 
products  grown  on  this  project.  Helena  (20,000) 
and  Butte  (40,000)  also  provide  high-priced  mar- 
kets contiguous  to  this  region.  Great  Falls  is 
quoted  by  an  eastern  magazine  as  being  the  highest- 
priced  produce-market  in  the  country.  Helena  is  a 
residence  city  and  the  State  capital,  and  Butte  a 
money-making  town,  the  big  mines  of  the  Amalga- 
mated Copper  Company  being  located  there.  There 
are  excellent  railway  facilities  for  transportation  to 
these  market-centres  from  all  parts  of  the  project. 

Owing  to  the  dry  climate,  the  wagon  roads  are 
hard  and  dry  ten  to  eleven  months  in  the  year  and 
the  light  snowfall  in  the  winter  months  enables  the 
farmer  to  make  use  of  his  idle  period  in  hauling 
produce  and  supplies. 

The  only  lands  of  the  project  open  to  entry  at  the 
present  time  are  in  the  Fort  Shaw  Unit.  This  com- 
prises 16,325  acres  of  irrigable  land  lying  mainly  in 
the  abandoned  Fort  Shaw  Military  Reservation  in 
the  valley  of  Sun  River.  On  June  9,  1917,  there 
were  27  farm  units  still  open  to  entry.  These  units 
contain  from  40  to  80  acres  of  irrigable  land,  which 
in  some  cases  is  combined  with  non-irrigable  land 
to  provide  pasturage  for  stock.  The  building' 
charge  on  this  land  is  $36  per  acre  of  irrigable  land. 

The  present  Project  Manager  is  Chas.  P.  Wil- 
liams, with  offices  at  Fort  Shaw,  Montana. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE   LOWER  YELLOWSTONE   PROJECT 
MONTANA-NORTH   DAKOTA 

It  will  be  recalled  by  those  who  have  read  the  Rec- 
lamation Act  as  originally  passed  that  the  moneys  re- 
ceived from  the  sale  of  public  lands  in  the  respective 
states  were  to  be  expended  in  the  states  from  which 
they  were  received.  This  section  of  the  act  was  later 
repealed,  but  as  both  Montana  and  North  Dakota 
had  large  areas  of  government  land  which  were  sold 
after  the  passage  of  the  act,  the  latter,  indeed,  lead- 
ing the  list  for  several  years,  it  was  decided  to  in- 
augurate work  upon  a  project  which  should  be  lo- 
cated in  these  states.  After  extended  investigations 
it  was  found  to  be  possible  to  divert  the  waters  of  the 
Yellowstone  River  near  the  town  of  Glendive,  Mon- 
tana, into  a  canal  on  the  north  side  of  the  river,  and 
irrigate  in  the  neighbourhood  of  60,000  acres  lying 
partly  in  Montana,  and  partly  in  North  Dakota. 
The  point  selected  for  the  diversion  of  the  river  is 
about  eighteen  miles  below  Glendive. 

The  diversion  dam  is  a  rock-filled  pile  weir  decked 
with  timber,  700  feet  long  and  50  feet  4  inches 
wide,  with  an  average  height  above  river-bed  of 
about  nine  feet.  It  raises  the  water  about  four 
feet  above  natural  low  water  into  the  canal.  The 
cold  climate  and  the  flood  conditions  that  occur  ren- 
dered great  care  necessary  in  fixing  upon  the  time 

195 


196       EECLAIMING  THE  ABID  WEST 

when  the  work  of  building  this  dam  should  be  done. 
A  contract  was  let  in  1906,  and  work  began  in  1907, 
but  the  difficulty  of  securing  the  proper  round  piles 
deferred  the  work  until  1908.  In  April  of  that  year 
480  of  the  piles  were  driven,  when  high  water  ar- 
rested the  work  on  May  20,  and  it  could  not  be  re- 
sumed until  August  3.  When  the  summer  flood  had 
subsided  it  was  found  impossible  to  drive  the  re- 
quired sheet-piling,  even  when  four-ply  sheets, 
driven  with  both  steam-  and  drop-hammer,  were 
substituted.  This  necessitated  a  change  in  the 
plans. 

Careful  examination  revealed  that  the  high  veloc- 
ity of  the  flood  waters  of  Yellowstone  Kiver,  aggra- 
vated by  the  accumulation  of  drift  against  the  piles, 
had  caused  great  erosion  of  the  river  bed,  and  had 
taken  out  a  number  of  the  piles,  leaving  others  barely 
standing  upright.  Upon  this  discovery  the  contrac- 
tor became  discouraged  and  refused  to  proceed  fur- 
ther with  the  work.  The  Service  thereupon  under- 
took to  complete  it.  Most  of  the  piles  driven  were 
taken  out,  and,  as  much  low-water  time — highly 
favourable  to  work — had  been  lost,  it  was  decided  to 
build  62  linear  feet  of  the  dam  adjacent  to  the  south 
abutment,  and  then  await  the  next  low-water  season. 
This  was  done,  and  while  the  next  flood  time  was  on, 
materials  were  assembled  for  the  rapid  prosecution 
of  the  work  when  the  waters  subsided.  As  soon  as 
the  subsidence  occurred  it  was  found  that  the  river 
bed  had  again  been  filled  with  gravel. 

Work  began  again  in  August,  1909,  and  was 
pushed  without  a  moment's  cessation,  day  or  night. 
As  fast  as  one  shift  retired  another  took  its  place. 


LOWER  YELLOWSTONE  PEOJECT     197 

The  sheet-piling  originally  planned  was  abandoned 
and  solid  timbers  of  Douglas  fir  10  by  10  inches, 
sharpened  and  shod,  and  with  strips  of  3  by  4  inches 
spiked  on  so  as  to  serve  for  tongue  and  groove,  were 
substituted.  They  were  found  to  possess  far  greater 
rigidity  and  endurance  than  the  piling.  Wherever 
the  ground  was  too  hard  for  satisfactory  penetra- 
tion, a  steel  shape,  built  of  riveted  steel  about  the 
size  of  the  pile,  was  first  driven  and  afterwards  with- 
drawn, and  the  pile  driven  in  its  place.  In  a  few 
cases  the  ground  was  even  too  hard  to  allow  of  this 
being  done,  whereupon  plain  steel  sheet-piling  was 
driven. 

The  work  was  completed  March  4,  1910,  and  soon 
thereafter  the  ice  broke  up  and  dashed  down  the 
river  with  its  customary  violence,  but  sounding's 
made  at  low  water  revealed  no  damage  to  the  dam. 
The  following  year,  however,  the  ice-pounding  on 
the  apron  of  the  dam  was  very  severe.  There  were 
several  ice-jams  which  broke  up  suddenly,  thus  pre- 
cipitating vast  quantities  of  ice  at  tremendous  veloc- 
ity upon  the  dam.  Investigation  showed  that  much 
of  the  loose  stone  below  the  dam  had  been  moved 
down-stream,  and  that  the  lower  row  of  sheet-piling, 
for  a  distance  of  about  500  feet,  had  been  either  cut 
off  by  the  ice  or  seriously  damaged,  and  that  a  por- 
tion of  the  timber  deck  was  gone.  Considerable  ero- 
sion had  also  taken  place  at  several  points  in  the 
body  of  the  dam,  and  a  large  amount  of  rock  removed 
from  the  section  where  the  deck  was  gone. 

As  it  was  found  the  steel-piling  had  successfully 
resisted  the  fierce  pounding  of  the  ice  it  was  decided 
to  replace  the  lost  piling  with  steel.  When  this  was 


198       EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

done  a  full  quota  of  rock  was  put  into  place,  the  deck 
restored  and  the  results  of  another  season's  ice-jams 
awaited  with  confidence.  The  dam  withstood  all 
shocks  and  has  ever  since  given  satisfactory  service 
without  material  damage. 

The  headgates  for  the  Main  Canal,  eleven  in  num- 
ber, are  set  in  a  high,  massive,  reinforced-concrete 
structure,  built  to  an  elevation  above  high-water 
mark.  At  Linden  Creek,  Burns  Creek,  and  Fox 
Creek,  provision  had  to  be  made  for  carrying  the 
irrigation  canal  across  these  lateral  streams.  At 
Linden  the  creek  is  taken  across  above  the  canal,  in 
a  reinforced-concrete  flume  twelve  feet  wide,  eight 
and  a  half  feet  deep,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty-two 
feet  long.  At  Burns,  8  miles  below  the  heading,  the 
creek  is  carried  in  a  superstructure  100  feet 
wide,  under  which  the  canal  water  flows  in  two  con- 
duits, each  9  by  10%  feet.  Fox  Creek,  36  miles  be- 
low the  headworks,  is  the  largest  of  the  streams 
crossed.  Here  the  canal  is  carried  under  the  creek 
in  a  reinforced  concrete  inverted  siphon,  225  feet 
long,  with  two  barrels,  or  tubes,  each  seven  feet  in 
diameter. 

Low-water  period  on  the  Yellowstone  Eiver  is 
from  August  15  to  May  1  of  the  next  year,  inter- 
rupted for  a  short  period,  usually  in  March,  when 
the  ice  breaks  up  and  is  generally  accompanied  by 
violent  freshets.  The  regular  high-water  period 
occurs  between  May  15  and  August  15,  due  to  melt- 
ing snow  in  the  mountains.  Ordinary  low  water  is 
about  6,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  extremely  high 
water  about  160,000,  which  carries  large  quantities 
of  drift,  mostly  submerged. 


LOWER  YELLOWSTONE  PROJECT     199 

The  climate  of  the  region  is  healthful  and  invigour- 
ating  with  good  sharp  winters,  and  warm  summers, 
though  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  not  se- 
verely felt.  The  air  is  dry  and  pure  and  there  is 
but  little  humidity.  Tornadoes  are  unknown.  The 
annual  rainfall  is  about  15  inches,  a  greater  part  of 
which  occurs  in  May  and  June.  The  average  eleva- 
tion of  the  farming  lands  is  1,900  feet  above  sea- 
level.  Transportation  is  afforded  by  the  Missouri 
River  and  two  railways,  the  Northern  Pacific,  and 
Great  Northern,  with  seven  railway  stations  on  the 
project,  the  chief  of  which,  with  their  populations, 
are  as  follows:  Savage,  300;  Sydney,  1,300;  Fair- 
view,  800,  all  in  Montana. 

In  the  irrigable  area  there  is  considerable  variety 
in  the  soils,  but  deep  sandy  loam  predominates  and 
the  main  crops  hitherto  have  been  grain,  forage 
crops  and  vegetables,  all  of  which  find  a  ready  mar- 
ket in  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul,  and  Duluth.  The  pres- 
ent status  of  the  irrigable  area  open  is  as  follows: 
9,536  acres  entered  subject  to  the  Reclamation  Act; 
445  acres  open  to  entry;  1,514  acres  of  state  land; 
33,273  acres  of  private  land.  The  limit  of  area  of 
the  farm  unit  on  the  government  land  is  80  acres. 
The  building  charges  per  acre  is  $42.50  and  $45, 
payable  in  twenty  years.  The  rental  charge  for 
1915  was  50  cents  per  acre  for  one  and  a  half  acre- 
feet,  with  additional  water  at  the  rate  of  50  cents 
per  acre-foot.  The  annual  operation  and  mainte- 
nance charge  is  75  cents  per  acre  for  one  acre-foot, 
with  additional  water  at  the  rate  of  50  cents  per 
acre-foot. 

The  first  irrigation  by  the  Service  was  in  the  sea- 


200       RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

son  of  1909,  and  in  1915  the  project  was  reported 
96  per  cent,  completed. 

Yet,  strange  to  say,  while  the  water  supply  pro- 
vided is  unfailing,  the  works  for  its  diversion  and 
delivery  are  effective  and  satisfactory,  the  soil  is 
productive,  and  the  climate  favourable,  the  agricul- 
tural results  have  been  disappointing  to  the  Govern- 
ment. This  is  due  to  the  failure,  or  refusal,  of  the 
majority  of  the  land  owners  to  use  the  water  for  irri- 
gation. The  chief  reason  for  this  refusal  undoubt- 
edly is  the  fact  that  the  region  being  only  semi-arid, 
sufficient  rain  falls  during  some  seasons  to  mature 
the  crops,  and  in  nearly  half  the  years  enough  rains 
fall  to  secure  fair  crops  of  some  kind.  Many  of  the 
farmers,  fully  50  per  cent,  are  Scandinavians;  they 
are  poor  and  do  not  see  the  advantage  irrigation 
would  be  to  them.  They  hope  for  favourable  rains 
and  prefer  to  take  the  chance  rather  than  undertake 
to  obligate  themselves  to  pay  for  the  water  right  and 
the  annual  charge  for  operation  and  maintenance  of 
the  plant.  Undoubtedly  as  their  financial  condition 
improves  they  will  see  that  it  is  to  their  advantage 
to  undertake  the  larger  expenditure,  as  thereby  their 
returns  will  not  only  be  assured,  but  will  be  corre- 
spondingly increased. 

The  canal  system  consists  of  66.3  miles  of  main 
canal,  and  146.6  miles  of  laterals,  and  the  lands 
reached  stretch  along  the  Yellowstone  Eiver  from 
Intake,  Montana,  to  the  Missouri  Eiver.  They  vary 
in  width  from  half  a  mile  or  less  at  the  upper  end  to 
five  miles  in  the  Fairview  district. 

The  Project  Manager  is  L.  H.  Mitchell,  with  office 
at  Savage,  Montana. 


CHAPTEE  XVIII 

IN   THE   EOMANCE   LAND   OF   THE   PATHFINDER 
THE   NORTH   PLATTE   PROJECT,   NEBRASKA-WYOMING 

The  country  embraced  within  this  region  was  prob- 
ably well  known  earlier  than  almost  any  other  por- 
tion of  the  West.  The  returning  Astorians,  in  1812, 
passed  down  the  North  Platte  Eiver,  making  their 
first  winter  camp  of  that  year  at  the  town  of  Besse- 
mer, fifteen  miles  above  Casper,  and  later  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  state  line  between  Nebraska  and  Wyo- 
ming— in  all  probability  very  close  to  the  present 
town  of  Mitchell,  the  headquarters  of  the  Keclama- 
tion  Service.  First,  the  intrepid  hunter  and  trapper 
blazed  the  way,  and  later  the  fur-trading  companies 
pushed  into  the  North  Platte  Valley,  and,  in  1834, 
established  a  trading  post  on  the  site  of  the  present 
town  of  old  Fort  Laramie,  which  was  maintained  by 
them  until  taken  over  by  the  Government  in  1849, 
when  it  became  one  of  the  most  prominent  posts  on 
the  transcontinental  route.  This  route  was  followed 
by  the  California  gold  seekers  and  by  the  Mormons 
in  their  migration  westward.  To  read  The  Adven- 
tures of  Captain  Bonneville  and  Astoria,  by  Wash- 
ington Irving,  the  discoveries  of  John  C.  Fremont, 
histories  of  Mormon  emigration  and  the  "Forty- 
niners,"  and  later,  of  "Wild  Bill"  and  "Buffalo 
Bill,"  reveals  this  valley  as  rich  in  historical  inter- 
est. The  discoveries  of  Professor  Marsh,  and  other 
paleontologists,  of  the  pre-historic  horse  and  the 

201 


202       BECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

great  saurians  make  the  region  one  of  unusual  inter- 
est to  the  student  of  the  earth's  history.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  settler  and  the  homebuilder  passed 
it  by  and  settled  to  the  north  or  south,  or  pushed  on 
to  Utah  and  California.  The  great  original  Califor- 
nia-Oregon trail,  a  highway  200  feet  in  width,  now 
overgrown  and  only  distinguished  from  the  gen- 
eral surroundings  by  the  difference  in  vegetation, 
stretches  on  mile  after  mile.  It  is  marked  here  and 
there  by  a  grave,  the  occupant  snatched  from  the 
eager  horde  pressing  ever  west ;  name,  age,  date  for- 
gotten ;  whether  the  victim  of  disease  or  savage,  un- 
known. But  occasionally  we  may  read  something 
like  this  on  a  rare  headstone:  "Amanda,  beloved 
consort  of  William  Smith,  born  May  5,  1831,  died  of 
cholera,  July  10,  1850."  It  requires  little  imagina- 
tion to  weave  a  romance  around  such  an  epitaph  in 
such  a  place.  Again,  Irving  relates,  in  his  Adven- 
tures of  Captain  Bonneville,  how  a  party  '  '  encamped 
amid  high  and  beetling  cliffs  of  indurated  clay 
and  sandstone,  bearing  the  semblance  of  towers, 
churches,  and  fortified  cities."  He  then  recalled  the 
melancholy  circumstance  from  which  the  fantastic 
bluffs  received  their  name,  the  story  of  one  of  an 
unfortunate  party,  a  man  by  the  name  of  Scott,  who, 
after  abandonment  by  his  companions  because  of 
illness,  crawled  a  distance  of  sixty  miles  before  death 
put  an  end  to  his  miseries,  "and  the  wild  and  pic- 
turesque bluffs  in  the  neighbourhood  of  his  lonely 
grave  have  ever  since  borne  his  name. ' ' 

The  very  name  bestowed  upon  the  dam — "The 
Pathfinder" — conjures  up  memories  of  a  brave  and 
stirring  epoch  in  our  national  expansion.  A  fitting 


EOMANCE  LAND  OF  PATHFINDER    203 

monument  to  the  sturdy  explorer,  John  Charles  Fre- 
mont, a  mighty  figure  of  the  romantic  pioneer  days, 
this  giant  structure  of  modern  masonry  rears  its 
lofty  crest  on  the  site  where  the  explorer  was 
wrecked  in  his  attempt  to  reach  the  Missouri  Eiver 
by  water,  and  a  wondrous  valley  made  fertile  by  the 
magic  touch  of  water  now  greets  the  eye  where  once 
the  Indian  and  buffalo  reigned  supreme. 

We  thus  see  a  revival  in  the  locality  where  more 
than  half  a  century  ago  was  the  best-known  and 
most-travelled  route  across  the  continent,  and  after 
being  all  but  forgotten  is  now  receiving  the  attention 
which  it  should  have  received  in  the  sixties.  The 
South  Platte  Valley,  150  miles  south  of  the  great 
western  pioneer  highway,  was  developed  through 
sheer  force  and  energy  of  its  people,  while  that  of  the 
North  Platte  has  remained  in  an  undeveloped  state, 
though  in  all  respects  equal  to  the  South  Platte 
Valley.  The  climate,  soil  and  flora  in  both  valleys 
are  almost  identical. 

The  North  Platte  Project  provides  for  the  stor- 
age and  diversion  of  the  waters  of  the  North  Platte 
Eiver  for  the  irrigation  of  lands  lying  in  the  North 
Platte  Valley  in  eastern  Wyoming  and  western  Ne- 
braska. It  comprises  all  of  the  work  on  the  North 
Platte  Eiver,  extending  from  the  town  of  North 
Platte  on  the  east,  near  the  101st  meridian,  to  the 
point  where  the  North  Platte  enters  the  State  of 
Wyoming  from  Colorado,  at  about  the  107th  merid- 
ian, a  distance — measured  by  the  winding  river — of 
about  500  miles.  The  project  lies  about  100  miles 
northeast  of  Cheyenne,  Wyoming.  In  the  east- 
erly portion  the  rainfall  is  at  times  sufficient  to 


204       EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

grow  crops,  while  in  the  western  portion  arid  condi- 
tions are  fonnd.  According  to  the  last  census, 
within  the  drainage  basin  of  the  Platte  Eiver  is 
found  the  largest  area  of  land  irrigable  by  one 
stream  in  the  United  States  and  the  value  of  the  im- 
proved agricultural  land  is  probably  as  high  as  that 
of  any  other  section,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
the  fruit  belt  of  California. 

The  building  of  the  Interstate  Unit  of  this  project 
is  already  completed,  as  is  also  the  Pathfinder  Dam 
and  storage  works.  The  building  of  the  Fort  Lara- 
mie  Unit,  on  the  south  side  of  the  river,  was  author- 
ized during  the  summer  of  1915,  and  active  opera- 
tions are  now  under  way  on  the  construction  of  the 
main  canal  and  the  surveys  of  its  distributing  sys- 
tem. No  land  will  be  available  for  homestead  entry 
under  this  unit  until  water  is  available  therefor. 

The  North  Platte  Eiver  carries  the  run-off  from  a 
large  and  mountainous  territory.  Its  catchment 
basin  contains  the  mountains  of  North  Park  in  Colo- 
rado and  the  Ferris,  Green,  Seminole,  Laramie  and 
inferior  ranges  in  mountainous  Wyoming.  Through 
its  tributary,  the  Sweetwater  Eiver,  it  also  carries 
the  run-off  from  a  considerable  portion  of  the  Con- 
tinental Divide.  Eising  in  the  mountains  of  north- 
ern Colorado,  the  river  flows  in  a  northerly  direction 
into  Wyoming,  where  after  traversing  half  the 
State,  it  turns  to  the  southeast  and  continues  in  a 
southeasterly  direction  to  its  junction  with  the 
South  Platte  in  central  Nebraska.  These  geo- 
graphical features  determine  largely  the  principal 
characteristics  of  the  stream.  During  the  spring 
and  early  summer  the  melting  snows  of  the  moun- 


EOMANCE  LAND  OF  PATHFINDEE    205 

tains  swell  its  volume  to  large  proportions,  while  in 
the  late  summer  the  long  continued  droughts  shrink 
its  volume  to  that  of  a  small  stream  distributed  over 
a  wide  stretch  of  shifting  sands. 

On  account  of  this  irregularity  of  flow  of  the  North 
Platte  Eiver  it  was  found  necessary  to  provide 
means  for  the  storage  of  the  flood  waters  of  the 
spring  and  early  summer,  in  order  that  they  might 
be  delivered  to  the  thirsty  lands  under  the  various 
canals  evenly  throughout  the  season.  To  meet  this 
necessity  the  Pathfinder  Eeservoir  was  built.  This 
reservoir  receives  the  drainage  from  about  12,000 
square  miles,  and  the  river  has  an  average  run-off 
of  1,400,000  acre-feet,  at  Pathfinder  Dam.  The  area 
of  the  reservoir  at  the  level  of  the  spillway  is  22,600 
acres  and  the  capacity  is  1,100,000  acre-feet. 

The  dam  is  one  of  the  largest  masonry  dams  in 
the  world,  rising  218  feet  above  the  rock  founda- 
tion. It  is  432  feet  long  and  10  feet  wide  on  the 
top  and  is  80  feet  long  and  90  feet  wide  on  the 
bottom.  It  is  located  about  3  miles  below  the  junc- 
tion of  the  North  Platte  and  Sweetwater  rivers, 
where  the  canyon  is  about  90  feet  wide  at  the  bottom 
and  200  feet  wide  at  the  top,  the  sides  for  the  upper 
75  feet  being  nearly  vertical.  The  depth  from  the 
top  of  the  canyon  to  bedrock  in  the  foundation  is 
about  200  feet. 

To  divert  the  flow  of  the  river  during  the  con- 
struction of  the  dam,  and  to  serve  as  an  outlet  for 
the  reservoir,  after  its  completion,  a  tunnel  was 
driven  through  the  northerly  abutment  of  the  dam, 
and  was  provided  with  gates  of  large  capacity  to 
regulate  the  outflow.  On  the  north  side  of  the  river 


206       KECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

a  spillway  600  feet  long  was  cut  in  solid  rock  adja- 
cent to  the  dam  to  allow  the  discharge  of  surplus 
water  after  the  reservoir  is  filled.  Near  the  south 
end  of  the  dam  an  earthen  dike  was  built  to  close  a 
gap  in  the  wall  of  the  reservoir,  which  was  lower 
than  the  spillway.  This  is  needed  because  of  the 
fact  that  a  few  hundred  feet  south  of  the  Pathfinder 
Dam  occurs  a  low  saddle  in  the  margin  of  the  reser- 
voir about  30  feet  below  the  level  of  the  spillway. 
Naturally  this  must  be  filled  to  retain  water  to  the 
full  height  of  the  rest  of  the  dam.  An  earthen  dike, 
1600  feet  long  and  40  feet  in  maximum  height,  with  a 
core  wall  of  reinforced  concrete,  was  built,  with  the 
water  slope  paved  with  rock  to  resist  wave  action. 

The  water  stored  in  the  Pathfinder  reservoir  is 
diverted  by  a  concrete  dam,  near  Whalen,  Wyoming, 
about  150  miles  from  the  Pathfinder.  The  canal  into 
which  it  flows  is  known  as  the  Interstate  Canal,  as  it 
supplies  land  both  in  Wyoming  and  Nebraska.  Pro- 
vision is  also  made  at  this  dam  for  the  later  con- 
struction of  a  canal  on  the  south  side  to  be  called  the 
Fort  Laramie  Canal.  The  Whalen  Dam  is  a  con- 
crete, overflow,  ogee  weir,  founded  on  rock.  Pro- 
vision is  made  for  taking  water  from  both  ends  of 
the  dam,  and  two  sluice-gates  are  provided  at  each 
end  for  clearing  the  entrance  to  the  canals.  The 
headgates  of  the  Interstate  Canal  are  placed  at  right 
angles  to  the  dam,  and  are  of  cast  iron,  9  in  number, 
working  in  a  structure  of  concrete. 

In  order  to  provide  additional  water-storage  near 
at  hand  to  the  lands  to  be  irrigated,  and  at  the  same 
time  lessen  the  risk  of  water  shortage  were  a  break 
to  occur  in  the  main  canal — a  liability  which  in- 


EOMANCE  LAND  OF  PATHFINDER    207 

creases  with  its  length — two  reservoirs,  Lakes  Alice 
and  Minitare,  have  been  formed,  the  former  nearly 
100  miles  from  the  head  of  the  canal,  and  the  latter 
12  miles  still  further  east.  Lake  Alice  has  a  ca- 
pacity of  11,400  acre-feet,  and  Lake  Minitare  of 
67,000  acre-feet,  and  these  two  reservoirs  are  used  to 
supply  a  large  area  that,  were  they  to  depend  upon 
the  main  canal,  would  be  liable  to  shortage  during 
the  period  of  greatest  irrigation  need. 

Lake  Alice  Dam  is  an  earthen  structure  about  30 
feet  in  maximum  height,  and  3,100  feet  long.  It  has 
a  top  width  of  20  feet,  the  water  slope  is  3  to  1,  and 
the  down-stream  slope  2%  to  1. 

The  outlet  consists  of  a  reinforced  concrete  cul- 
vert containing  three  conduits  4  feet  high,  and  3  feet 
wide.  There  are  three  gates  of  cast  iron  controlled 
by  hand  power,  and  a  groove  for  flashboards  to  per- 
mit shutting  off  the  water  in  case  repairs  to  the  gates 
become  necessary. 

The  Minitare  Dam  is  an  earthen  embankment  with 
a  down-stream  toe  of  gravel.  Its  maximum  height 
is  about  65  feet  above  the  valley,  and  its  length  is 
about  3,700  feet.  A  short  distance  above  the  centre 
line  it  has  a  cut-off  trench  and  a  core-wall  of  rein- 
forced concrete  reaching  deep  below  the  surface, 
varying  from  6  to  34  feet.  Its  top  width  is  20  feet. 
The  water  slope  is  paved  with  concrete  blocks  8 
inches  thick,  10  feet  wide,  and  20  feet  long,  under- 
laid with  12  inches  of  unscreened  gravel. 

The  North  Platte  Project  has  an  average  altitude 
of  4,100  feet  above  sea-level,  and  its  soil  varies  from 
sand  to  sandy  loam.  It  is  rather  rolling,  being  in 
places  quite  rough  and  difficult  to  irrigate.  This  is 


208        RECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

indicated  by  the  fact  that  6,445  canal  structures  are 
provided  for  the  irrigation  of  129,684  acres  of  land 
on  806  miles  of  canals. 

Seepage  from  the  canals  and  excessive  irrigation 
by  ignorant  or  careless  farmers  have  caused  the  rise 
of  ground- water  in  some  localities,  but  this  has  been 
counteracted  as  far  as  possible  by  drainage,  13  miles 
of  open  and  9  miles  of  closed  drains  having  been 
constructed.  In  1915  there  were  1,050  farms  re- 
ceiving water,  covering  73,881  acres,  though  the  pro- 
ject was  prepared  to  supply  over  129,000  acres, 
83,000  acres  of  which  are  in  public,  29,000  acres  in 
private  ownership  and  17,000  acres  under  the  Carey 
Act  project  of  the  North  Platte  Canal  and  Coloniza- 
tion Company,  in  "Wyoming.  These  lands  are  mesa 
or  table  lands  lying  from  50  to  200  feet  above  the 
river.  Between  this  table  land  and  the  river  there 
is  bottom  land  about  one  mile  in  width  which  has 
been  irrigated  for  a  number  of  years,  the  principal 
crops  being  alfalfa  and  native  hay,  sugar  beets  and 
small  grains. 

The  lands  under  this  project  are  practically  all 
prairie  sod  and  therefore  need  no  clearing.  For  the 
most  part  the  surface  is  so  even  that  it  may  be  suc- 
cessfully irrigated  without  levelling  or  preparation 
other  than  such  tilling  of  the  soil  as  is  necessary  to 
plant  crops.  There  are  numerous  pieces  of  ground, 
however,  on  which  irrigation  can  be  greatly  facili- 
tated by  proper  preparation  or  where  the  levelling  of 
the  ground  is  a  necessity.  Farmers  who  are  unac- 
quainted with  the  necessities  of  irrigation  and  the 
methods  pertaining  thereto,  will  do  well  to  inspect 
carefully  the  land  they  propose  to  buy  and  ask  the 


EOMANCE  LAND  OF  PATHFINDER    209 

advice  and  opinion  of  the  successful  irrigators  in 
regard  to  the  work  of  preparation  required  for  such 
lands  as  they  propose  to  purchase.  Of  course  ex- 
perienced irrigators  who  understand  the  necessary 
preparation  of  the  ground  do  not  need  this  advice. 
As  a  fair  estimate  it  may  be  stated  that  in  but  rare 
cases  the  cost  of  preparing  land  for  irrigation  would 
amount  to  more  than  $15  per  acre,  and  at  least  80 
per  cent,  of  the  land  of  this  project  needs  no  irriga- 
tion preparation  whatever,  other  than  the  ploughing 
of  the  necessary  distributing  laterals. 

One  of  the  most  attractive  features  of  this  much- 
favoured  valley  is  its  sunny,  invigourating  and 
health-giving  climate.  The  summers  are  always 
comfortable  and  the  winters  relatively  mild,  with 
little  rain  or  snow.  Extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are 
seldom  known.  The  heat  during  the  day  in  summer 
is  tempered  by  breezes  and  the  extreme  dryness  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  the  nights  are  always  cool  and 
comfortable.  The  maximum  temperature  in  summer 
reaches  104°  and  the  lowest  recorded  temperature 
in  winter  is  30°  below  zero.  It  is  seldom  that  the 
thermometer  reaches  zero  every  night  for  ten  con- 
secutive nights,  the  cold  periods  generally  lasting 
about  three  days.  The  annual  precipitation  varies 
from  10  to  24  inches,  with  a  general  average  of  15 
inches. 

Contrary  to  expectations  of  the  newcomer,  there 
is  little  snow  in  winter.  So  rare,  in  fact,  is  snow- 
fall, and  it  disappears  so  rapidly,  that  a  sleigh  or 
sled  is  rarely  seen.  On  the  other  hand,  we  find  that 
the  greatest  rainfall  is  in  the  months  of  April,  May, 
June  and  July,  the  period  when  moisture  is  most 


210        EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

needed  for  the  growing  crops ;  while  for  September, 
October  and  November,  the  months  of  harvest,  the 
rainfall  is  the  minimum,  thus  insuring  the  saving  of 
crops  without  damage  from  rain.  The  number  of 
days  in  the  year  in  which  rain  falls  averages  about 
50;  clear  days,  250;  partly  cloudy,  95;  and  cloudy, 
20.  Storms  occur  at  intervals  between  November 
1st  and  April  1st.  Experience  has  shown,  however, 
that  severe  storms  do  not  occur  every  winter.  By 
reference  to  the  climate  and  crop-service  reports  of 
the  weather  bureau,  we  find  that  the  last  frost  usually 
occurs  the  early  part  of  May  and  the  first  about  the 
middle  of  September.  This  record  refers  to  a  mini- 
mum temperature  of  32°  and  does  not  always  mean 
that  these  were  killing  frosts.  The  native  in  the 
valley  believes  that  no  damage  will  come  to  his  most 
tender  crops  after  May  12th,  nor  before  September 
20th.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  climate  is  superior;  the 
large  number  of  days  when  the  sun  shines,  the  dry 
atmosphere  and  the  certainty  of  beautiful  weather, 
render  the  valley  a  desirable  residence  portion  of 
the  United  States.  While  the  temperatures  appear 
to  be  low  in  winter,  the  extreme  dryness  of  the  at- 
mosphere makes  it  less  severe  on  man  and  beast  than 
an  equal  temperature  in  the  humid  region. 

The  soil  is  a  sandy  loam  of  excellent  quality,  free 
from  alkali  and.  other  injurious  substances.  It  is 
easily  worked  and  particularly  well  adapted  to  the 
raising  of  first-class  potatoes  and  sugar  beets.  The 
native  vegetation  consists  of  buffalo  grass,  grama 
grass,  what  is  locally  known  as  wheat  grass,  other- 
wise bluestem,  and  blackroot. 

All  of  these  afford  excellent  range  where  not  over- 


rr  ft 


WHALEN  DIVERSION  DAM  AND  HEADWORKS 
NORTH  PLATTE  PROJECT,  NEBRASKA- WYOMING 


SPRING  CANYON  FLUME 
NORTH  PLATTE  PROJECT,  NEBRASKA-WYOMING 


EOMANCE  LAND  OF  PATHFINDER     211 

grazed.  Wheat  grass  in  particular,  which  soon  ap- 
pears wherever  the  ground  is  irrigated,  makes  good 
hay  and  brings  on  the  market  at  Omaha,  Kansas  City 
and  Denver,  a  higher  price  than  timothy.  The 
cactus,  or  prickly  pear,  is  much  in  evidence,  indicat- 
ing the  richness  of  the  soil.  The  plant  is  entirely 
destroyed  by  the  first  ploughing  and  wherever  it 
grows  the  land  is  considered  desirable.  The  culti- 
vation is  easy,  as  there  is  no  heavy  adobe  soil  to 
contend  with.  The  soil  is  readily  subdued,  and  like 
the  soils  of  the  entire  plains  region,  it  is  fertile,  con- 
taining a  large  amount  of  mineral  plant  food.  On 
the  benches,  which  are  quite  smooth  and  gently  slope 
to  the  south  and  east,  the  sandy  loam  extends  to  a 
considerable  depth,  except  at  the  points  where  the 
hills  project  out  into  the  valley. 

The  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  west.  In  this 
respect,  as  also  in  temperature,  the  climate  is  similar 
to  that  of  Colorado.  There  is  a  period  of  blustery 
and  disagreeable  spring  weather  in  evidence  during 
the  months  of  March  and  April,  extending  some- 
times into  May,  during  which  period  most  of  the 
wind  movement  occurs.  From  June  1st  to  the  end 
of  the  year,  the  winds  are  moderate  and  pleasant, 
tempering  the  heat  of  the  warmest  days  in  summer. 

The  principal  crops  of  the  project  are  alfalfa, 
grains,  potatoes  and  sugar  beets.  While  fruit  is  not 
grown  to  any  great  extent  for  shipment,  many  far- 
mers produce  an  abundant  supply  for  their  own  use 
and  the  local  market. 

Much  of  the  alfalfa  grown  is  fed  to  cattle  and 
sheep  from  the  stock  range  on  both  sides  of  the 
valley,  and  from  Wyoming  and  Montana.  Some 


212        EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

farmers  buy  stock  in  the  fall,  fatten  them  during  the 
winter  and  market  them  in  the  spring,  while  others 
sell  their  alfalfa  in  the  stack  to  stock  men  to  be  fed 
on  the  premises.  Several  thousand  tons  are  also 
shipped,  baled,  every  year  to  Missouri  Eiver  points. 
Alfalfa  meal  mills  at  Mitchell  and  Gering  also  take 
500  tons  or  over  a  month. 

Truck  farming,  ere  long,  doubtless  will  become 
one  of  the  most  profitable  of  occupations  in  the  North 
Platte  Valley.  Beans,  peas,  tomatoes,  squash  and 
pumpkins  thrive  abundantly,  and  they  are  of  the  fine 
flavour  and  quality  that  satisfy  the  most  exacting 
demands  of  the  canners.  There  are  several  small 
canneries  indicated  in  the  no  distant  future.  There 
are  also  a  few  farmers  who  are  already  making  a 
specialty  of  growing  cabbage,  watermelons,  cante- 
loupes  and  onions. 

Bees  also  thrive  well  and  make  an  abundance  of 
pure,  white,  deliciously  flavoured  honey,  combining 
the  product  from  the  wild  plants  and  the  alfalfa  and 
clover. 

Cattle  raising  on  the  open  range  is  now  almost  a 
thing  of  the  past  here,  but  the  country  is  rapidly  be- 
coming one  of  the  great  dairying  regions  of  the 
West.  There  is  a  growing  demand  for  every  pound 
of  butter-fat  that  can  be  produced,  and  at  a  good 
price. 

While  the  open  range  has  gone,  many  farmers 
are  making  a  profitable  business  of  breeding  fine 
cattle  and  sheep  for  market,  and  thoroughbred  dairy 
stock.  There  is  also  a  great  demand  for  horses  and 
mules,  which  some  farmers  are  supplying  to  a 
greater  or  lesser  extent. 


EOMANCE  LAND  OF  PATHFINDER    213 

Hogs  do  well,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  300  carloads 
having  been  shipped  the  past  year. 

While  flies  and  mosquitoes  are  frequent  in  certain 
seasons  of  the  year,  other  pests  are  unknown,  and  as 
people  understand  better  the  scientific  control  of 
flies  and  mosquitoes  they  will  speedily  disappear. 

The  principal  markets  for  all  the  products  which 
may  be  raised  in  the  North  Platte  Valley  are  Den- 
ver, Wyoming,  Nebraska  and  Missouri  Eiver  points. 
Dairy  products,  eggs,  poultry  and  garden  truck  all 
bring  high  prices  and  there  is  a  constant  and  grow- 
ing demand  for  these  farm  products.  The  great 
markets  of  the  Middle  West — Omaha,  Kansas  City, 
Chicago  and  other  large  cities — take  all  surplus 
products,  sending  in  return  machinery,  household 
supplies  and  other  manufactured  articles  not  yet 
produced  in  the  valley. 

Thus,  in  a  few  years,  the  marvellous  change  has 
taken  place.  There  is  no  longer  any  expansive,  de- 
serted, uncultivated  valley  of  the  Platte. 

The  great  and  expansive  plain  from  which  the  old 
deserted  highway  is  fast  disappearing,  leaving  only 
thrilling  memories  of  "The  Pathfinder,"  the  "For- 
ty-niner," the  dashing  soldier  of  fortune  and  the 
patient  pioneer,  is  rapidly  becoming  the  home  of  the 
prosperous  small  farmer  and  is  undergoing  a  trans- 
formation never  dreamed  of  twenty  years  ago. 
The  days  of  the  cattle  baron  in  this  valley  are  past 
and  he  is  being  driven  farther  and  farther  into  the 
hills  each  year  by  the  rapid  approach  of  the  incom- 
ing settlers.  The  great  range  is  being  divided  into 
small  farms  of  40,  80  and  160  acres.  Where,  but  a 
short  time  ago,  the  coyote  and  prairie  dog  were  the 


214        RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

only  inhabitants,  irrigation  has  built  up  large  com- 
munities; large  fields  of  alfalfa,  sugar  beets  and 
other  crops  are  taking  the  place  of  the  native  grass. 
Although  still  in  its  infancy,  this  valley  is  keeping 
step  with  the  development  of  community  life  in  other 
parts  of  the  country,  taking  great  pride  in  its  schools, 
churches,  and  other  social  and  intellectual  organiza- 
tions. 

The  principal  towns  embraced  in  the  North  Platte 
Project  are  on  the  north  side :  Guernsey,  Lingle  and 
Torrington  in  Wyoming,  and  Henry,  Merrill, 
Mitchell,  Scotts  Bluff,  Minitare,  Bayard  and  Bridge- 
port, in  Nebraska.  Guernsey  is  located  8  miles 
above  the  headworks  of  the  Interstate  and  Fort 
Laramie  Canal,  and  although  not  in  the  irrigated 
section  is  a  thriving  town  of  about  400  people. 
Torrington  is  the  county  seat  of  Goshen  County  and 
has  a  population  of  about  700.  Henry,  a  town  of 
about  100  people,  on  the  State  line,  attracts  many 
visitors  in  the  summer  on  account  of  the  good  fishing 
nearby.  Morrill  is  a  thriving  town  of  about  500 
people,  and  is  the  railroad  point  for  Dutch  Flats. 
Mitchell  is  a  prosperous  town  with  1,000  inhabi- 
tants, containing  the  headquarters  of  the  Reclama- 
tion Service  for  the  North  Platte  Project.  Scotts 
Bluff  is  the  largest  town  in  the  North  Platte  Valley, 
with  a  population  of  3,500.  The  second  largest 
sugar  factory  in  the  West  is  located  here.  Minitare 
and  Bayard  are  thriving  towns  lying  within  the 
irrigated  district  with  populations  respectively  of 
about  500  and  400.  Bridgeport,  the  junction  of  the 
Bridgeport-Guernsey  line  with  the  Denver-Alliance 
branch  of  the  Burlington  Railroad,  is  the  county  seat 


EOMANCE  LAND  OF  PATHFINDER    215 

of  Morrill  County.  It  has  a  population  of  about 
700.  The  towns  named  are  from  8  to  15  miles  apart ; 
the  distance  between  Bridgeport  and  Guernsey  is  98 
miles. 

On  the  south  side  of  the  river,  the  Union  Pacific 
is  building  a  line  from  North  Platte,  Nebraska,  west- 
ward through  the  valley,  its  terminus  on  January  1, 
1916,  being  about  10  miles  west  of  Gering.  This  is 
the  oldest  town  in  the  valley,  having  now  a  popula- 
tion of  about  1,000  inhabitants,  and  is  the  county  seat 
of  Scotts  Bluff  County.  With  the  advance  of  the 
North  Platte  branch  of  the  Union  Pacific  Kailroad, 
the  new  towns  of  Haig,  Melbeta  and  McGrew  are 
starting  on  the  south  side  of  the  river,  none  of  which 
has  a  population  exceeding  100  inhabitants. 

With  the  development  of  the  public  and  private 
irrigation  systems  in  the  valley,  these  towns  have 
grown  steadily,  substantial  buildings  have  been 
erected  and  light,  water  and  sewer  systems  have  been 
built  in  nearly  all  the  larger  towns. 

An  abundant  supply  of  well  water  of  excellent 
quality  may  be  obtained  at  nearly  all  points  on  the 
North  Platte  Project  at  depths  of  from  20  to  200 
feet  and  usually  within  100  feet.  On  account  of  the 
depth  there  is  little  danger  of  contamination.  Most 
wells  will  supply  sufficient  water  for  all  the  stock 
the  farm  will  support. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  a  contemplated  canal 
— the  Fort  Laramie — which  is  to  flow  from  the 
Whalen  Dam  on  the  south  side  of  the  river.  Con- 
struction already  has  begun  on  this.  It  will  have 
about  25  miles  of  heavy  construction,  including 
three  tunnels  aggregating  8,550  feet  in  length.  It 


216       RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

will  cross  the  Goshen  Park  and  irrigate  about  55,000 
acres  in  Wyoming,  mostly  State  and  public  land,  and 
about  45,000  acres  in  Nebraska,  mostly  private  land. 
Later  it  can  be  extended  to  cover  more  land  in 
Nebraska  should  the  water  supply  prove  sufficient. 
This  canal  system  is  already  known  as  the  Fort 
Laramie  Unit  and  will  be  ready  to  supply  water  in 
1918. 

The  size  of  farm  units  on  this  project  for  public 
lands  is  80  acres,  and  the  construction  charge  is  $55 
per  acre,  payable  in  20  years  without  interest. 

The  Pathfinder  Unit  is  already  completed,  and  the 
Interstate  Unit  almost  so,  while  work  on  the  Fort 
Laramie  Unit  is  now  fairly  well  under  way. 

The  present  Project  Manager  is  Andrew  Weiss, 
with  offices  at  Mitchell,  Nebraska. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE   TBUCKEE-CAESON   PROJECT 

One  of  the  beauty  spots  of  the  world  is  Lake  Tahoe 
— the  Lake  of  the  Sky,  located  on  the  eastern  edge  of 
the  High  Sierras,  partially  in  California  and  par- 
tially in  Nevada,  surrounded  by  snow-crowned  peaks 
that  companion  the  stars  and  set  forth  the  pure  blue 
of  one  of  the  bluest  skies  ever  seen  by  man.  This 
jewel  of  a  lake — though  the  word  jewel  may  suggest 
that  it  is  small,  in  reality  it  is  with  but  one  ex- 
ception the  largest  lake  at  its  altitude — 6,225  feet — 
in  the  world — is  so  pure  blue,  and  its  waters  so  clear 
that  Mark  Twain  said  of  it:  "So  singularly  clear 
was  the  water,  that  where  it  was  only  twenty  or  thirty 
feet  deep  the  bottom  was  so  perfectly  distinct  that 
the  boat  seemed  floating  in  the  air!  Yes,  where  it 
was  even  eighty  feet  deep.  Every  little  pebble  was 
distinct,  every  speckled  trout,  every  hand's-breadth 
of  sand.  .  .  .  Down  through  the  transparency  of 
these  great  depths,  the  water  was  not  merely  trans- 
parent, but  dazzlingly,  brilliantly  so." 

This  lake  has  fully  a  hundred  sources  in  the 
springs  that  bubble  up  on  the  mountain  sides,  and 
streams  that  come  dashing  down,  yet,  strange  to  say, 
it  has  but  one  outlet — the  Truckee  Eiver.  Following 
a  winding  and  meandering  course  on  the  California 
side  of  the  Lake,  it  soon  flows  north,  then  twists 
around  to  the  east,  cutting  its  way  through  the  an- 

217 


218        RECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

cient  lava  flows  of  the  Sierras,  and  then  aims  for  one 
of  the  " sinks"  of  the  Nevada  sage-brush  plains, 
where  it  forms  another  lake,  named  by  Fremont, 
Pyramid  Lake,  from  the  peculiar  pyramid-like  rock 
that  stands  within  its  waters. 

Another  river,  originating  in  the  snow-fields  of  the 
eastern  slopes  of  the  Sierras,  is  the  Carson,  named 
by  Fremont  after  his  able  scout  and  lieutenant,  the 
Indian-fighter,  Kit  Carson. 

For  centuries  these  two  rivers  have  flowed  on  in 
their  respective  channels,  of  little  use  to  man,  except 
the  few  Paiuti  and  Washoe  Indians  that  occasionally 
camped  by  and  fished  in  them.  During  later  his- 
toric times  the  Carson  has  had  two  outlets,  one  emp- 
tying into  Carson  Lake,  the  other  into  a  great  flat 
dried-out  lake  bed,  or  playa,  commonly  spoken  of  as 
the  Carson  Sink.  This  latter-named  end  of  the  Car- 
son River  has  always  appeared  pathetically  useless 
to  me.  Beginning  in  the  snowy  fountains  in  the 
sweetest  purity,  and  evidently  with  the  finest  prom- 
ise, the  river  flowed  its  course  and  then  emptied  its 
water  out  upon  the  desert  area,  known  as  the  Carson 
Sink,  where  it  was  evaporated  by  the  sun.  The 
Truckee  River  made  a  beautiful  lake,  but  the  Carson 
succeeded  in  making  only  a  mud  puddle,  where  a  few 
lost  ducks  now  and  again  wandered,  and  where  some 
unfortunate  traveller  cursed  his  luck  at  having  to 
pass  over  such  a  barren,  desolate,  and — to  him  it 
seemed — God-forsaken  spot. 

The  geologists,  however,  tell  us  that  this  Carson 
Sink  was  once  a  part  of  a  great  interior  lake,  which 
extended  almost  entirely  across  Nevada,  and  which 
they  named  Lake  Lahontan,  after  the  French  ex- 


THE  TEUCKEE-CAKSON  PKOJECT    219 

plorer.  "When  the  gold  hunters  crossed  the  plains 
in  1849  and  came  by  the  central  route,  one  of  their 
dreads  was  this  Carson  Sink.  In  the  summer 
months  it  became  so  baked  and  hardened  as  scarcely 
to  receive  an  impression  from  a  horse's  hoof,  and 
so  sun-cracked  as  to  resemble  tessellated  pavements 
of  cream-coloured  marble.  But  when  the  rains  fell 
and  the  snow  of  the  mountains  began  to  melt  rapidly, 
the  water  would  spread  out  over  it  sometimes  form- 
ing a  lake  in  a  single  night,  only  to  evaporate  in  the 
sun  of  the  next  succeeding  two  or  three  days. 
"When  the  weather  was  unsettled  one  traveller  would 
pass  over  the  playa — as  this  evaporated  lake  bed 
was  called — and  he  would  complain  of  its  dryness  and 
the  intense  heat  which  beat  up  into  his  face  with 
distressing  force  from  the  bare  surface,  while  an- 
other traveller,  coming,  perhaps,  a  week  later,  would 
curse  the  intelligence  of  men  who  knew  so  little  as 
to  make  a  road  through  the  bed  of  a  muddy  lake. 

But  here,  as  elsewhere,  man  did  not  judge  the  lar- 
ger plan  of  the  forces  that  control  our  mundane 
sphere.  The  river  was  constantly  bringing  down 
valuable  soil  deposits  from  the  mountain  slopes,  and 
here  was  being  prepared  a  valley  which,  when  its 
appointed  time  arrived,  could  become  one  of  the 
fertile  garden  spots  of  the  world.  The  passing  of 
the  Irrigation  Act  was  that  appointed  time.  As 
Senator  Newlands,  of  Nevada,  was  the  statesman  to 
whom  the  American  commonwealth  is  indebted  for 
the  formulation  of  the  plans  that  ultimated  in  the 
organization  of  the  United  States  Eeclamation  Ser- 
vice, it  was  nothing  but  fair  (although  it  was  also  a 
pleasing  piece  of  poetic  justice)  that  his  state  should 


220        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

be  one  of  the  earliest  beneficiaries  of  its  helpful  op- 
erations. 

Here,  then,  were  the  conditions :  on  the  one  hand,  a 
large  area  of  desert  waste,  but  rich  land,  utterly 
useless  to  the  world,  and,  at  times,  a  curse  to  the 
weary  traveller;  and,  on  the  other,  two  rivers  ex- 
travagantly and  wastefully  pouring  out  their  water, 
which  might  have  been  life-giving,  to  be  lost  in  the 
heart  of  the  desert.  To  bring  them  together,  and 
then  scientifically  apply  the  water  to  the  land,  was 
the  test  set  before  the  engineers  of  the  Eeclamation 
Service.  Hence  the  name  given  to  the  work,  combin- 
ing the  names  of  both  the  rivers,  the  Truckee-Carson 
Project. 

While  the  major  part  of  the  Carson  Sink  is  of  the 
character  described,  some  portions  of  it  are  sandy, 
and  the  outskirts  of  the  playa  are  covered  with 
greasewood  and  sagebrush  and  other  desert  vegeta- 
tion. 

To  irrigate  this,  and  other  feasible  lands,  a  steady 
supply  of  water  must  be  assured,  and,  as  there  were 
many  private  locators  on  and  near  the  Truckee 
Eiver  in  the  vicinity  of  Eeno,  and  also  on  the  Carson 
Eiver,  their  interests  must  be  conserved  as  well  as 
those  of  the  later  settlers  who  might  come  and 
locate  upon  the  Government's  vacant  and  arid  lands. 
Lake  Tahoe  was  thereupon  decided  to  be  an  ideal 
storage  reservoir.  With  its  area  of  193  square 
miles,  a  slight  rise  or  fall  would  mean  thousands  of 
acre-feet  of  water  more,  or  less,  for  the  users  in  the 
far-away  valleys.  Yet  it  must  be  remembered  that 
Lake  Tahoe  is  one  of  the  noted  scenic  resorts  of 
America.  Thousands  of  visitors  flock  to  it  annually 


THE  TRUCKEE-CARSON  PROJECT    221 

from  California  and  Nevada  and  the  rest  of  the 
world,  and  there  are  in  the  neighbourhood  of  twenty 
to  thirty  hotels,  taverns,  resorts,  and  camps  perma- 
nently located  on  its  shores,  together  with  scores  of 
summer-homes,  representing  the  investment  of  many 
millions  of  dollars.  To  play  fast  and  loose,  there- 
fore, with  the  water-supply  of  Lake  Tahoe  would  be 
impossible.  Too  great  a  rise  in  the  water-content 
of  the  lake  would  jeopardize  the  interests  of  those 
residing  there,  and  too  great  a  fall  would  destroy — 
in  some  measure — its  scenic  beauty  and  therefore  its 
desirable  quality  to  the  summer  resident,  camper, 
and  tourist. 

Recognizing  these  facts  the  Reclamation  Service 
made  a  thorough  study  of  the  situation,  discovered 
the  reasonable  fluctuations  between  normal  high,  and 
normal  low,  water,  and  then  agreed  to  observe  a 
mean — provided  Nature  concurred — above  which  no 
water  should  be  stored,  and  below  which  the  water 
should  not  be  allowed  to  fall. 

Another  important  fact  could  not  be  overlooked. 
That  was  that  certain  power-plants  relied  upon  the 
steady  and  continuous  flow  of  the  Truckee  River  to 
operate,  and  as  Fall  and  Winter  constitute  the  low- 
water  season,  the  draft  on  the  storage  in  Lake  Tahoe 
is  greatest  at  that  time,  and  not  being  then  needed 
for  the  irrigation  of  the  desert  lands,  would  be  en- 
tirely lost  for  such  a  purpose,  unless  it  could  be 
stored  elsewhere. 

The  area  that  it  was  designed  to  irrigate — some 
200,000  acres — was  mainly  in  the  basin  of  the  Carson 
River,  yet  the  surplus  of  water  was  found  to  be  in 
the  Truckee  River.  There  was  no  natural  reservoir 


222       RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

provided  for  the  storage  of  the  water  of  the  Carson 
River,  so  one  must  be  built,  and  some  means  must 
also  be  devised  of  conveying  the  surplus  water  of  the 
Truckee  so  that  it  could  be  united  with  that  of  the 
Carson  and  thus  stored  until  it  was  needed.  To  do 
this  the  Lahontan  Reservoir  was  erected  on  the  Car- 
son River,  where  the  drainage  area  is  in  the  proxim- 
ity of  1,000  square  miles.  This  has  a  capacity  of 
290,000  acre-feet  and  covers  an  area  of  12,000  acres. 
The  storable  run-off  often  falls  below  100,000  acre- 
feet  in  a  year,  and  at  such  times  this  reservoir  and 
the  lands  it  irrigates  must  depend  upon  the  Truckee 
River  and  its  headwaters  in  Lake  Tahoe. 

Lahontan  Dam  is  one  of  the  most  unique  and  in- 
teresting structures  built  by  the  Reclamation  Serv- 
ice. It  is  an  earthen  dam,  and  yet  was  built  in  a 
river  channel  with  a  recorded  flood  of  20,000  cubic 
feet  per  second,  and  a  possible  flood  of  twice  that 
amount.  The  site  is  at  a  point  where  the  Carson 
cuts  through  a  gorge  about  eight  miles  south  of 
Hazen,  Nevada,  on  the  main-line  of  the  Ogden  route 
of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railway.  The  right  bank 
rises  abruptly  about  125  feet,  as  a  bluff  of  broken 
and  seamy  rock,  inclined  in  all  directions,  and  badly 
faulted.  The  left  bank  rises  rather  abruptly  for 
fifty  feet,  where  a  gently  sloping  bench  occurs,  350 
feet  wide,  above  which  another  steep  rise  of  75  feet 
occurs.  Both  sides  slope  gently  from  the  bluffs  to 
the  foothills,  which  are  about  a  mile  from  the  river 
on  the  north,  and  two  miles  on  the  south.  Borings 
made  by  the  engineers  showed  the  foundation  to  be 
similar  to  the  abutments  and  also  revealed  movement 
of  underground  waters  and  some  artesian  flow. 


THE  TRUCKEE-CARSON  PROJECT    223 

To  provide  a  solid  dam  of  earth  under  the  above 
described  conditions,  capable  of  withstanding  the 
pressure  of  the  continued  storage,  and  of  the  fierce 
floods  of  springtime,  that  would  also  prevent  un- 
reasonable seepage,  required  many  days  of  serious 
thought,  of  testing  and  experimentation.  But  in 
due  time  the  work  was  done.  The  dam  has  a  top 
width  of  twenty  feet,  a  water  slope  of  three  to  one 
protected  by  twelve  inches  of  gravel  and  two  feet 
of  hand-placed  rock.  The  down-stream  slope  is  two 
to  one,  and  is  covered  by  fifteen  inches  of  dumped 
rock  from  a  nearby  quarry.  Its  maximum  height 
is  124  feet,  maximum  base  thickness  660  feet,  and  it 
has  a  crest  length  of  900  feet,  or  1,400  feet,  including 
the  spillways.  These  are  250  feet  long — one  at  each 
end  of  the  dam.  They  converge  by  means  of  guide 
walls,  and  descend  on  concrete  steps  to  a  central  pool 
in  the  river-bed  below  the  dam. 

As  an  illustration  of  inventive  genius  applied  to 
problems  as  they  arise  these  spillways  are  interest- 
ing. Had  they  discharged  into  the  bed  of  the  river, 
washing  and  cutting  back  would  have  been  inevitable, 
to  the  great  detriment  of  the  dam.  But  by  making 
twin  spillways,  one  on  each  side  of  the  dam,  the  over- 
flows are  perfectly  adjusted  as  to  bulk  and  force, 
and  the  streams  impinge  on  each  other  above  the 
pool,  thus  destroying  each  the  energy  of  the  other 
and  whirling  about  harmlessly  in  the  pool  from  which 
the  water  flows  gently  down  the  river. 

The  highest  flood  in  a  record  of  twelve  years  is 
about  20,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  This  quantity  of 
water  would  flow  over  the  weir  at  a  depth  of  five  and 
a  half  feet.  The  top  of  the  embankment  is  twelve 


224       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

feet  above  the  crest  of  the  weir,  and  the  area  of  the 
reservoir  of  12,000  acres  would  have  a  large  regulat- 
ing effect  on  any  flood,  so  that  the  engineers  believe 
that  one  might  occur  of  three  times  the  above  re- 
corded power  without  damage  to  the  main  portion 
of  the  dam. 

To  convey  water  from  the  Truckee  Eiver  to  this 
dam,  it  was  essential  to  construct  a  diversion  dam 
in  the  Truckee  Eiver,  and  then  build  thirty-one 
miles  of  canal.  As  the  water  from  this  canal  was 
required  to  irrigate  certain  bench  lands,  near  Fern- 
ley,  on  the  Truckee  Eiver,  and  also  for  the  delivery 
of  200  second-feet  of  water  to  a  fertile  area  in  the 
vicinity  of  Pyramid  Lake,  and  further,  it  was  needed 
to  generate  power  at  Lahontan  for  the  construction 
of  the  great  dam,  this  portion  of  the  work  was  done 
first.  Construction  was  begun  in  1903.  The  dam 
was  located  about  ten  miles  above  Wadsworth,  on 
the  Ogden  route  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Eailway. 
At  this  point  the  river  crowds  the  mountainside  on 
its  right  bank,  and  leaves  a  small,  gradually  sloping 
valley  on  the  left.  The  diversion  is  made  by  a  long, 
earthen  dike  across  the  valley,  and  a  concrete  struc- 
ture in  the  river-bed,  consisting  of  a  series  of  six- 
teen gates  of  5-foot  horizontal  opening,  with  5-foot 
piers  between,  making  the  distance  between  abut- 
ments 155  feet.  This  is  the  structure  that  may  be 
seen  by  east-bound  passengers  travelling  on  the 
Southern  Pacific  soon  after  crossing  the  California 
line  into  Nevada. 

The  headgates  of  the  canal  are  eight  in  number, 
and  placed  at  right  angles  to  those  of  the  river,  the 


THE  TEUCKEE-CAESON  PEOJECT    225 

two  sets  of  gates  and  their  foundations  forming  one 
structure  and  using  one  abutment  in  common. 

After  this  dam  was  placed  in  operation,  a  great 
flood  occurred  in  1907,  far  beyond  previous  records, 
which  carried  a  large  amount  of  drift-wood.  As  a 
result  of  this  experience,  it  was  deemed  advisable 
to  remove  the  top  of  one  pier  in  order  to  provide 
automatic  passage  for  drift. 

To  prevent  the  entry  of  water  beneath  the  gates 
a  curtain- wall  of  concrete  was  carried  three  feet  be- 
low the  foundation  on  the  river-side  of  the  head- 
gate  structure. 

For  over  ten  miles  the  canal  is  in  a  canyon,  with 
steep  side-hill  construction,  largely  in  rock,  so  that 
for  economy  in  building  it  was  made  narrow  and 
deep,  the  water  depth  for  full  canal  being  twelve 
feet.  There  are  three  tunnels,  respectively  901,  309, 
and  1,515  feet  long.  These  are  twelve  feet  wide  and 
have  a  water-depth  of  thirteen  feet.  Canal  and  tun- 
nels are  both  lined  with  concrete. 

At  a  point  in  the  canyon,  about  four  and  a  half 
miles  below  the  heading,  a  waste-way  is  provided  by 
means  of  which  the  canal  may  be  emptied  quickly  in 
case  of  a  threatened  break  or  any  emergency  requir- 
ing such  action. 

On  its  arrival  at  Lahontan  the  carrying  capacity 
of  the  canal  has  been  reduced  to  about  800  cubic-feet 
per  second,  and  discharges  at  about  125  feet  above 
the  river-bed.  Advantage  was  taken  of  this  fact 
to  locate  a  power-plant  by  dropping  a  portion  of  the 
water  through  turbines  below  the  dam-site.  These 
turbines  are  24-inches  of  830  horse-power  each,  oper- 


226        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

ating  under  110-foot  head,  and  the  current  is  gener- 
ated at  a  pressure  of  2,300  volts.  It  was  used  for 
operating  the  drag-scrapers,  loading  sand  and 
gravel,  etc.,  during  the  construction  of  the  dam,  and 
is  now  increased  in  size  and  power  and  the  electricity 
leased  to  the  cities  of  Fallon,  Hazen,  Eochester, 
Lovelocks,  and  Battle  Mountain.  Fallon,  sixteen 
miles  away,  is  thus  supplied  with  ample  electric  cur- 
rent for  all  purposes.  This  is  available  for  manu- 
facturing, and  already  the  city  is  well  lighted  and 
watered  through  the  use  of  this  electric  power.  The 
city  water-supply  pumps  are  motor-driven  from  this 
source. 

The  electric  current  is  also  used  to  operate  the 
mills  at  the  famous  Eochester  mines,  as  well  as  for 
pumps  for  irrigation,  and  power-plants  for  indus- 
tries within  reach  of  its  transmission  line,  which  is 
more  than  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in  length. 

To  divert  the  water  of  the  Carson  Eiver  a  dam 
was  built  about  five  miles  below  the  Lahontan  Dam 
closely  resembling  that  on  the  Truckee.  It  is  225 
feet  long  between  abutments,  and  has  23  openings  of 
five  feet  each,  closed  by  cast-iron  gates  of  designs 
similar  to  those  on  the  Truckee. 

Two  canals  head  here,  the  larger  being  on  the  right 
bank,  and  having  a  capacity  of  1,500  second-feet. 
Nearly  six  miles  below  the  headgates  the  main  canal 
has  a  drop  of  twenty-six  feet  in  its  water  surface,  in 
passing  from  the  bench  to  the  bottom-lands.  The 
excess  fall  was  concentrated  at  this  point  so  that 
eventually  it  may  be  utilized  for  power  purposes,  and 
the  structure  provided  was  designed  with  such  use 
in  view. 


THE  TRUCKEE-CAESON  PEOJECT    227 

Up  to  January  1,  1915,  the  costs  of  construction 
on  this  project  were  nearly  six  millions  of  dollars. 
This  included  104  miles  of  main  canals,  420  miles  of 
laterals,  178  miles  of  surface  drains,  4  miles  of  tile 
drains,  and  many  concrete  and  wooden  structures, 
as  well  as  the  hydro-electric  plant  before  referred 
to.  It  should  also  have  been  stated  that  concrete 
headworks  were  erected  at  Lake  Tahoe  to  regulate 
the  outflow  of  water  into  the  Truckee  Eiver. 

In  1913  about  43,000  acres  on  the  project  were  un- 
der irrigation.  About  half  of  these  were  home- 
steads, the  others  being  in  private  ownership.  Ad- 
ditional public-  and  privately-owned  lands  will  be 
opened  as  settlement  demands,  until  the  whole  206,- 
000  acres  will  be  under  irrigation  and  cultivation. 
As  there  are  several  very  different  kinds  of  location 
on  the  project,  the  soils  have  a  great  range  in  variety. 
A  fine  sandy  soil  resembling  volcanic  ash  is  the  char- 
acteristic of  the  Fernley  district.  In  the  " Island" 
and  '  '  Stillwater ' '  districts  where  the  land  is  very 
smooth  and  level  the  soil  is  of  a  sandy  loam,  merg- 
ing into  heavy  clay  formation  with  certain  areas  of 
a  peaty  nature,  while  in  the  "Fallon"  and  surround- 
ing districts  the  soil  varies  all  the  way  from  light 
sand  to  heavy  adobe  ground.  Practically  all  of  these 
soils  yield  abundantly  when  properly  prepared  and 
there  does  not  appear  to  be  much  choice  so  far  as 
productiveness  is  concerned,  although  there  is  quite 
a  difference  in  the  mode  of  preparing,  cultivating 
and  irrigating  for  the  best  results. 

There  is  an  experimental  farm  maintained  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  where  much  instructive 
information  is  to  be  obtained  regarding  the  charac- 


228        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

ter  of  crops  and  methods  of  cultivation  which  are 
best  adapted  to  this  locality.  Settlers  may  also  ob- 
tain here  limited  numbers  of  trees  and  shrubs  which 
are  adapted  to  the  locality. 

The  work  required  for  levelling  and  preparing  for 
irrigation  varies  greatly  in  the  different  sections; 
the  cost  in  some  instances  being  only  that  of  remov- 
ing the  brush  and  furrowing,  while  in  the  sand-dune 
country  the  expense  of  grading  to  a  satisfactory  sur- 
face may  run  as  high  as  $50,  or  even  more,  per  acre. 
There  are  many  expert  land  levellers  on  the  project 
who  contract  for  outside  work  in  addition  to  their 
own. 

There  are  fine  bench  lands  already  under  cultiva- 
tion at  the  present  time  at  Hazen  and  Fernley.  The 
latter  is  one  of  the  new  towns  that  has  sprung  up 
since  the  project  began,  and  is  on  the  main  line  of 
the  Southern  Pacific,  about  35  miles  east  of  Keno. 
These  benches  slope  towards  the  north  to  the  foot- 
hills of  the  Sierra  Nevada  range.  While  these  lands 
are  part  of  the  Truckee-Carson  project,  geographi- 
cally they  form  a  unit  in  themselves. 

The  soil  is  of  a  different  character  from  that  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Fall  on,  being  of  a  gravelly 
sandy-loam,  in  some  parts  rather  rocky,  and,  evi- 
dently, at  one  time,  near  the  shore-line  of  the  ancient 
Lake  Lahontan. 

Its  gradual  slope  to  the  north,  with  a  fall  approxi- 
mating 100  feet  to  the  mile,  necessitates  a  furrow 
system  of  irrigation,  but  with  this  fall,  any  surplus 
of  alkali  is  quickly  washed  out.  Seepage  from  the 
canal  along  these  uplands  is  practically  unknown, 


THE  CITY  OF  FALLON  ON  WHAT  WAS  ONCE  THE  CARSON  DESERT 
TRUCKEE-CARSON  PROJECT,  NEVADA 


A  PART  OF  THE  NEVADA  DESERT  BEFORE  RECLAMATION 
TRFCKEE-CARSON  PROJECT,  NEVADA 


THE  TRUCKEE-CARSON  PROJECT     229 

and  the  question  of  high  water-table  is  entirely  ab- 
sent over  most  of  this  section. 

Up  to  the  end  of  1914,  the  district  has  been  en- 
tirely devoted  to  alfalfa,  but  in  1915  the  older  and 
more  'settled  ranches  began  to  grow  with  great  suc- 
cess and  profit,  potatoes,  sugar-beets,  onions,  etc. 
Five  tons  to  the  acre  per  season  of  alfalfa  is  no  un- 
usual yield  and  three  first-class  cuttings  are  har- 
vested. Some  wonderful  truck  gardens  have  been 
developed,  and  small  fruits  do  well.  The  success  of 
fruit  trees  is  rather  uncertain,  and  no  orchards  have 
been  planted  on  a  large  scale.  This  location  is 
ideal  for  dairy  farms  and  the  feeding  of  cattle. 

There  are  additional  bench  lands  to  be  developed 
in  the  future  between  Lahontan  and  Hazen,  across 
the  Carson  River  and  south-east  of  the  Lahontan 
Dam,  and  an  excellent  tract  in  the  vicinity  of  Pyra- 
mid Lake.  The  general  description  given  of  the 
Fernley  bench  lands  equally  applies  to  these  other 
sections,  hence  as  soon  as  they  are  opened  to  the 
public  they  will  doubtless  be  eagerly  taken  up. 

The  general  elevation  of  the  project  lands  is  4,000 
feet  above  sea  level.  Temperature  ranges  from  0° 
to  100°  Fahr.  Precipitation  averages  four  inches 
annually.  Snow  rarely  falls  and  usually  does  not  lie 
on  the  ground  more  than  a  day  or  two.  The  air  is 
extremely  dry.  Humidity  is  seldom  felt  and  the  cli- 
mate generally  is  temperate  and  delightful.  Due  to 
the  altitude,  late  and  early  frosts  are  to  be  expected, 
but  these  ordinarily  do  not  interfere  with  the  great 
variety  of  crops  which  are  successfully  grown.  The 
single  drawback  to  the  climate  is  the  occasional  wind 


230        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

and  dust  storm,  the  worst  of  which  are  disagreeable 
but  never  destructive. 

The  ruling  farm  unit  is  the  80-acre  subdivision 
containing  usually  not  less  than  40  irrigable  acres. 
It  is  possible  for  lands  in  private  ownership  to  ac- 
quire water  rights  up  to  160  acres,  but  with  further 
extensions  of  the  project  and  improved  methods  of 
cultivation  the  tendency  will  be  toward  the  adoption 
of  the  40-acre  farm  unit  which  is  found  to  be  ample 
when  intensively  cultivated  for  the  support  of  a  f am- 

ay. 

Owing  to  the  great  variety  of  soils  an  equal  va- 
riety of  products  can  be  successfully  and  profitably 
grown  upon  them.  While  alfalfa  is  still  the  stable 
crop,  it  is  being  supplemented  by  many  others. 

It  yields  on  good  soil  from  five  to  seven  tons  of 
hay  per  acre.  Wheat  yields  35  bushels,  barley  50 
bushels,  and  oats  75  bushels  per  acre.  Corn  has  not 
been  grown  except  in  an  experimental  way,  but  prom- 
ises to  become  an  important  crop ;  it  will  yield  from 
30  to  60  bushels  per  acre.  Kaffir  corn,  milo  maize, 
millet  and  many  other  forage  crops  of  this  kind  have 
been  tried,  and  promise  to  become  useful  to  the  farm- 
ers. Every  kind  of  garden  vegetable  has  proven  suc- 
cessful. Melons  of  excellent  quality  have  been 
raised,  and  bring  high  prices  in  the  mining  camps 
close  by,  while  all  kinds  of  green  stuff  which  can 
stand  one  or  two  days '  shipment  to  the  mines,  have 
been  a  most  important  source  of  revenue. 

It  is  claimed  that  apples,  pears,  peaches,  plums, 
apricots  and  cherries  all  do  well,  but  one  should  be 
sure  of  his  ground,  and  the  climatic  conditions,  be- 
fore planting  these  fruits  too  extensively. 


THE  TKUCKEE-CABSON  PEOJECT     231 

The  Carson  Sink  Valley  is  perhaps  one  of  the  best 
potato-growing  regions  in  the  West.  It  is  produc- 
ing potatoes  of  the  best  quality,  and  where  they  have 
been  handled  intelligently  the  yields  have  been  as 
great  as  they  generally  are  in  the  Greeley  country  of 
Colorado,  or  in  California.  The  mining-camps  of 
Nevada  pay  high  prices  for  potatoes,  and  outside 
districts  cannot  compete  in  shipping  to  these  mines. 
Furthermore,  the  Nevada  potatoes  on  the  San  Fran- 
cisco market  sell  at  a  premium,  for  California  people 
appreciate  good  potatoes,  and  realize  that  Nevada 
can  produce  them  better  than  can  their  own  farms. 

Sugar  beets  have  been  experimented  with  and  have 
proven  first-class  in  every  particular.  They  carry 
the  highest  per  cent,  of  sugar  and  purity  of  any  lo- 
cality in  the  United  States,  and  the  yield  is  enormous. 
As  a  result  of  careful  experiments  a  factory  of  500 
tons'  capacity,  and  costing  $600,000  has  been  erected 
and  is  now  in  active  operation.  Onions  also  are 
grown  on  a  large  scale.  The  yield  is  far  more  than 
the  average,  the  demand  greater  than  the  supply,  and 
the  prices  large. 

While  cattle  and  sheep  in  large  numbers  are  raised 
here,  and  many  more  are  brought  in  from  the  open 
ranges  to  be  fattened,  hog-raising  seems  to  promise 
large  returns.  Fine  hogs  do  remarkably  well,  and 
seem  free  from  the  diseases  that  hamper  breeders 
elsewhere.  George  Wingfield,  the  Nevada  million- 
aire, has  established  a  large  creamery  at  Fallon,  and 
has  adopted  a  fine  plan  for  securing  the  best  of  cream 
for  his  butter.  He  purchased  several  carloads  of 
thoroughbred  dairy  cows  which  he  sold  to  the  farm- 
ers, agreeing  to  take  his  pay  either  at  so  much  per 


232        KECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

month,  or  by  holding  back  one-half  of  the  monthly 
pay-check  for  the  cream  sent  in  by  the  rancher.  The 
result  is  one  can  ride  over  the  farms  of  this  project 
and  see  some  of  the  best  dairy  stock  in  the  West. 
The  poultry  industry  here  is  very  profitable,  the  mild 
dry  climate  being  especially  favourable  for  raising 
turkeys,  which  command  premium  prices  on  San 
Francisco  markets. 

Although  the  engineering  work  is  not  yet  entirely 
completed,  some  three  millions  more  having  been 
set  aside  for  this  purpose,  the  development  that  has 
so  far  occurred  is  remarkable  and  wonderful. 

Fifteen  years  ago  there  was  no  such  town  as  Fal- 
lon.  Now  it  is  the  principal  city  not  only  on  the 
project  but  in  the  county, — indeed  it  is  the  County 
Seat,  has  a  population  of  between  1,500  and  2,000,  and 
it  is  a  thoroughly  progressive  and  up-to-date  western 
city.  It  owns  its  electric-lighting  and  power-, 
water,-  and  sewer-system,  and  is  the  headquarters 
for  the  only  county  in  the  United  States — so  I  am 
informed — that  owns  and  operates  its  telephone  sys- 
tem. Many  of  its  homes  and  business  houses  are 
built  of  stone  and  concrete,  and  it  is  a  thriving,  self- 
respecting,  and  progressive  community. 

The  schools, — graded  and  high  school, — are  well 
supported,  and  the  district  schools  are  sufficient  for 
local  needs.  Union  district  schools  are  now  being 
promoted.  It  also  has  two  good  weekly  newspapers. 
All  the  principal  churches  and  fraternal  orders  are 
represented.  A  theatre,  skating-rink,  dancing-pa- 
vilion, and  such  social  accessories  are  also  well  pat- 
ronized. 

Fernley  is  also  growing  into  importance.     It  is 


THE  TKUCKEE-CABSON  PEOJECT    233 

the  turning-off  point  for  the  Fernley  Branch  of  the 
Southern  Pacific. 

The   present   Project-Manager  is    Mr.    John    T. 
Whistler,  with  office  at  Fallon,  Nevada. 


CHAPTER  XX 

IN  THE  LAND  OF  THE  DELIGHT-MAKERS. 
THE  CAELSBAD  PROJECT,  NEW  MEXICO 

The  Pueblo  Indians  of  New  Mexico  have  been  irri- 
gationists  for  thousands  of  years.  On  the  upper  Rio 
Grande,  and  at  Laguna,  Acoma,  Zuni  and  their  de- 
pendant villages  they  have  been  accustomed  from 
time  immemorial  to  construct  their  rude  and  simple 
diversion  dams,  convey  the  water  to  their  fields  and 
irrigate  corn,  and  other  seed  crops,  and,  after  the 
advent  of  the  Spaniards,  peas,  beans,  chili,  squash 
and  a  few  fruits.  Hence  it  is  appropriate  that  this 
land  should  have  appealed  to  the  Mexican  and  "White 
Settler  and  led  them  into  the  same  method  of  soil 
and  crop  cultivation.  As  we  have  seen  in  other 
chapters  the  Mexican  utilized  what  lands  he  could  ir- 
rigate easily  on  the  lower  Eio  Grande,  and  other 
streams,  but  neither  he  nor  the  Indian  before  him 
grasped  the  significance  and  importance  of  the  stor- 
age of  the  destructive  and  wasteful  spring  floods. 
When  the  white  man  appeared  this  was  what  he 
sought  to  do,  and  the  era  of  modern  irrigation  was  at 
least  fore-shadowed,  if  not  actually  ushered  in. 

One  of  the  rivers  of  New  Mexico  that  speedily  ap- 
pealed to  the  vision  of  the  irrigation  farmer — for 
without  irrigation  farming  in  New  Mexico  is  prac- 
tically impossible,  as  it  is  a  genuinely  arid  or  semi- 
arid  land — was  the  Pecos.  It  rises  about  40  miles 
north-west  of  Las  Vegas  in  the  wooded  and  moun- 

234 


LAND  OF  THE  DELIGHT-MAKERS     235 

tainous  area  included  in  the  Pecos  Forest  Reserve, 
and  flows  in  a  general  south-easterly  course  through 
the  counties  of  Mora,  San  Miguel,  Leonard  Wood, 
Chaves  and  Eddy  into  Texas  and  thence  to  the  Rio 
Grande.  It  drains  a  region  above  the  Carlsbad  Proj- 
ect of  22,000  square  miles.  Like  all  the  streams  of 
this  region,  it  is  almost  dry  at  times,  and  at  others 
is  subject  to  violent  floods.  In  1915  one  flood  was 
estimated  to  flow  at  80,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 
These  floods  are  heavily  laden  with  sediment,  and 
this  is  a  serious  problem  to  deal  with,  as  naturally  it 
has  a  tendency  to  fill  any  reservoir  that  may  be  pro- 
vided. The  annual  run-off  in  acre-feet  from  1899  to 
1915  was  maximum,  912,000;  minimum  148,000; 
mean,  319,000.  The  average  rainfall  on  the  irriga- 
ble area,  which  has  an  elevation  of  3,100  feet  is  14.9 
inches.  In  the  year  1915  rain  to  the  depth  of  18.63 
inches  fell.  The  temperature  ranges  from  -5°  to 
110°  Fahr.,  and  the  length  of  the  irrigating  season  is 
from  March  to  November,  and  two  weeks  in  winter, 
260  days. 

Where  the  Pecos  Eiver  crosses  Eddy  County  it 
flows  through  a  valley  from  six  to  twenty  miles  wide, 
the  soil  of  which  is  a  sandy  loam  with  considerable 
lime  peculiar  to  this  region,  and  which  bears  the 
name  of  the  river.  The  success  of  the  Indians  and 
Mexicans  in  growing  a  variety  of  crops  led  to  en- 
thusiastic and  eager  settlement  of  this  valley  and  the 
appropriation  of  all  available  water  for  irrigation. 
To  overcome  the  difficulties  and  water  shortages  that 
arose,  owing  to  the  erratic  flow  of  the  river,  the 
Pecos  Irrigation  Company  was  formed  in  1890.  It 
constructed  two  dams  which  created  two  large  res- 


236        RECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WE'ST 

ervoirs,  Lakes  Avalon  and  McMillan,  both  on  the 
Pecos  Eiver,  with  a  system  of  canals  which  reached 
both  sides  of  the  Pecos.  This  system  is  said  to  have 
originally  cost  fully  two  millions  of  dollars. 

For  awhile  all  seemed  to  go  fairly  well,  though 
considerable  leakages  or  seepages — far  above  the 
average — were  encountered  in  both  canals  and  reser- 
voirs, until  October,  1904,  when  a  serious  flood  oc- 
curred which  carried  away  the  Avalon  Dam  and 
greatly  damaged  the  embankments  of  Lake  McMil- 
lan and  the  distribution  system.  Owing  to  lack  of 
finances  the  company  was  unable  to  rebuild  the  dam, 
and  temporary  expedients  were  resorted  to  for  the 
conservation  of  such  water  as  could  be  saved,  but 
additional  floods  carried  these  away,  and  the  13,000 
acres  of  land  that  were  being  irrigated  were  in  dan- 
ger of  reverting  to  their  original  desert  condition. 

In  this  desperate  strait  the  Pecos  Company  united 
with  the  settlers  in  a  petition  to  the  Reclamation 
Service  to  acquire  the  rights  of  the  Irrigation  Com- 
pany and  establish  a  permanent  and  secure  system 
that  should  remove  the  dread  that  had  begun  seri- 
ously to  disturb  the  serenity  of  the  farmers. 

In  due  time  this  was  done,  not  because  the  Serv- 
ice deemed  this  one  of  the  most  desirable  of  proj- 
ects to  undertake,  but  purely  to  save  a  large  and 
fairly  thriving  farming  community  from  the  certain 
ruin  that  threatened  it.  This  fact  should  not  be 
overlooked  in  estimating  the  value  this  great  Service 
has  been  to  the  country  at  large. 

After  careful  consideration  by  the  engineers  of  the 
needs  of  the  existing  system  to  enlarge  H  and  make 
it  secure  the  Carlsbad  Project  may  be  said  to  include 


If 


LAND  OF  THE  DELIGHT-MAKEES     237 

the  following  features :  Storage  in  Lake  McMillan, 
of  the  flood  waters  of  the  Pecos  Eiver,  near  Lake- 
wood,  N.  M.,  and  further  storage,  with  distribution, 
in  Avalon  Eeservoir,  near  Carlsbad,  N.  M.,  from 
which  water  is  diverted  into  canal  systems  on  both 
sides  of  the  Pecos  Eiver. 

As  reconstructed  the  system  is  as  follows :  Ava- 
lon Dam  was  rebuilt  with  a  reinforced  concrete  core- 
wall,  with  earth  embankment  on  the  water  side  and 
rock-fill  on  the  down-stream  side.  This  provision  of 
a  core- wall  was  an  innovation  upon  the  usual  western 
practice,  and  especially  that  of  the  Eeclamation 
Service.  Its  necessity  arises  from  the  presence  of  a 
large  percentage  of  soluble  salts  in  the  earth  avail- 
able. In  use,  the  slow  percolation  of  water  through 
such  a  bank  gradually  leaches  out  the  soluble  matter, 
leaving  the  bank  more  and  more  porous,  and  it  soon 
becomes  unreliable  as  a  barrier  against  water.  The 
core-wall  thus  serves  as  a  strengthener  and  sup- 
porter, and  also  prevents  destruction  of  the  embank- 
ment by  the  ravages  of  burrowing  animals. 

The  dam  is  combination  earth  and  rock  fill,  50  feet 
high  and  1,380  feet  in  length.  It  serves  primarily 
as  a  diversion  dam,  but  has  a  storage  capacity  of 
about  5,000  acre-feet  above  the  canal  outlet,  which  is 
excavated  in  rock  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  The 
right  side  of  the  canal  for  a  distance  of  200  feet  was 
closed  by  wooden  gates  to  be  opened  in  times  of  flood, 
and  serve  as  a  spillway.  Two  other  spillways  have 
been  provided  by  the  Service  on  the  right  or  west 
side  of  the  reservoir. 

The  large  concrete  flume,  which  carries  the  main 
canal  across  the  Pecos  Eiver  five  miles  below  Avalon 


238        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

Dam,  was  repaired  and  where  necessary  rebuilt.  Its 
service  now  is  perfect,  as  compared  with  that  given 
prior  to  its  reconstruction. 

At  Dark  Canyon,  where  the  original  crossing  had 
proven  wasteful  and  inefficient,  and  had  finally  failed 
entirely,  a  substitute  was  adopted  in  a  6-foot  rein- 
forced concrete  pressure  pipe,  400  feet  long,  cross- 
ing the  canyon  under  a  head  of  about  20  feet. 

Black  Eiver  is  a  small  stream  that  flows  into  the 
Pecos  from  the  west,  at  the  lower  end  of  the  project. 
Its  waters  are  diverted  by  a  canal  on  the  right  bank, 
to  water  about  1,000  acres  of  land.  At  times  the 
Black  Eiver  is  inadequate  for  this  purpose,  and 
water  is  then  furnished  from  the  main  canal  through 
a  branch  reaching  Black  Eiver  above  the  diversion 
point.  The  old  canal  from  Black  Eiver  was  so  leaky 
that  it  delivered  only  a  small  percentage  of  the  water 
turned  into  it.  A  new  canal,  lined  with  concrete, 
which  is  practically  water-tight,  was  put  in  its  place. 

The  Main  Canal  has  been  almost  entirely  rebuilt. 
In  some  places,  where  it  passed  through  formations 
of  gypsum  that  were  so  porous  as  to  leak  constantly, 
a  new  and  lower  line  was  found,  and  the  whole  made 
water-tight.  Two  new  spillways  were  built,  at  Ava- 
lon,  which  include  two  tunnels  which  were  excavated 
in  the  solid  limestone,  these  two  tunnels  discharging 
into  the  river  below.  Each  of  these  tunnel  spillways 
is  controlled  by  a  cylindrical  steel  gate  of  similar  de- 
sign to  the  one  controlling  the  inlet  to  the  pressure 
tunnel  on  the  Yuma  Project,  over  which  the  water 
flows  into  the  wells  and  out  through  the  tunnel.  In 
case  of  heavy  floods  the  gates  are  raised  10  feet, 
allowing  the  water  to  flow  under  them,  thus  increas- 


LAND  OF  THE  DELIGHT-MAKERS     239 

ing  the  discharge  head.  The  capacity  of  Spillway 
No.  1  is  about  14,000  cubic  feet  per  second.  There 
are  two  other  spillways  with  relative  capacities  of 
32,000  and  22,000  cubic  feet  per  second. 

Besides  these  tunnel  spillways  a  reinforced  con- 
crete overflow  spillway,  397  feet  long,  was  con- 
structed at  the  west  end  of  the  Avalon  Dam.  This 
spillway  is  of  circular  shape,  with  a  radius  of  250 
feet.  It  has  a  capacity  about  equal  to  that  of  the 
tunnel  spillways. 

Lake  McMillan,  the  main  reservoir  of  the  system, 
is  formed  by  a  combination  earth  and  rock-fill  dam 
across  the  Pecos  Eiver,  1,686  feet  long  and  52  feet 
high,  with  an  embankment  5,200  feet  long  and  19 
feet  high,  to  close  the  gap  in  the  hills  west  of  the 
river.  The  main  spillway  is  cut  through  rock  about 
a  mile  west  of  the  dam  and  discharges  into  a  ravine 
joining  the  river  two  miles  below.  The  reservoir  ad- 
joins on  the  east  a  bluff  of  gypsum,  very  soft  and 
full  of  seams,  and  is  partially  underlaid  with  gyp- 
sum. It  developed  serious  leaks,  which  gradually 
increased  in  magnitude  by  solution  and  erosion,  until 
caves  and  underground  conduits  were  formed  of  such 
magnitude  as  to  receive  the  full  ordinary  flow  of  the 
Pecos  Eiver.  The  capacity  below  the  larger  leaks 
was  small,  and  it  became  impossible  to  fill  the  reser- 
voir except  in  great  floods,  and  the  stored  water,  even 
then,  speedily  escaped.  In  order  to  overcome  this 
difficulty  the  Reclamation  Service  built  a  dike  to  cut 
off  that  part  of  the  reservoir  in  which  the  main  leaks 
occurred.  It  is  4,000  feet  long  and  most  of  it  is  19 
feet  high,  and  the  water-slope  is  a  retaining  wall 
of  hand-laid  rock  on  a  slope  of  1%  to  1,  backed  with 


240        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

earth.  The  outer  earth  slope  is  2  to  1,  and  the  earth 
toe  is  protected  with  rock  riprap. 

In  1914  the  dam  was  visited  by  a  great  flood. 
When  the  flood  was  at  its  maximum  the  patrol  dis- 
covered a  large  leak  near  the  west  end.  By  prompt 
and  energetic  action  with  rocks  and  earth  the  dam 
was  saved,  and  afterwards  thoroughly  repaired. 

Careful  surveys  have  been  made  to  measure  the 
amount  of  sediment  accumulated  in  the  reservoir. 
It  shows  an  average  of  about  4,000  acre-feet,  so  that 
it  is  evident  in  time  the  reservoir  will  fill  up  and  new 
storage  capacity  must  be  provided. 

The  irrigable  lands  now  opened  amount  to  24,796 
acres,  of  which  166  acres  only  are  public,  923  acres 
state,  and  23,707  acres  private  land.  The  building 
or  construction  charge  per  irrigable  acre  has  been 
fixed  for  various  portions  of  the  project  at  $31,  $45, 
$55  and  $60. 

The  principal  products  are  alfalfa,  cotton,  grain- 
crops,  melons,  peaches,  pears,  and  miscellaneous 
fruits,  and  about  16,000  acres  are  being  actually  cul- 
tivated. 

It  can  scarcely  be  expected  that,  under  the  condi- 
tions here  related,  the  development  of  this  project 
should  have  been  spectacular  or  rapid.  The  aim  has 
been  to  preserve  what  had  been  secured,  and  to  pre- 
vent a  number  of  hard  working  people  from  losing 
their  hard-earned  homes.  There  has  been  a  marked 
improvement,  however,  on  nearly  all  lines,  especially 
on  the  farms  operated  by  their  owners.  Cotton  has 
been  coming  into  favour  as  a  paying  crop,  though  al- 
falfa is  the  main  stand-by.  Thousands  of  tons  are 
fed  to  live-stock,  many  cattle  and  sheep  being  fat- 


AVALON  DAM  AND  SPILLWAY 
CARLSBAD  PROJECT,  NEW  MEXICO 


CEMENT  LINED  SECTION  MAIN  CANAL 
CARLSBAD  PROJECT,  NEW  MEXICO 


LAND  OF  THE  DELIGHT-MAKERS     241 

tened  here,  though  there  is  a  good  dairy  industry 
being  developed.  There  is  a  co-operative  creamery 
at  Otis,  which  is  doing  a  fairly  prosperous  business, 
and  the  quality  of  its  butter  is  excellent. 

Owing  to  the  occasional  occurrence  of  frosts  the 
peach  and  other  less  hardy  crops  are  somewhat  un- 
certain, but  the  quality  of  the  fruit  is  far  above  the 
average  and  were  packing  or  canning  facilities  af- 
forded, would  yield  good  returns  to  the  growers. 

The  present  Project  Manager  is  L.  E.  Foster,  with 
office  at  Carlsbad,  New  Mexico. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

DISAPPOINTMENT  AND  ABANDONMENT.      HONDO 
PROJECT,   NEW   MEXICO 

Not  all  battles  are  won !  Sometimes  the  engineer, 
even  though  exercising  all  of  the  wisdom  acquired  by 
experience,  is  defeated  by  the  superior  forces  of  na- 
ture, especially  where  he  is  taken  by  surprise. 
There  are  many  cleverly  arranged  ambuscades 
which  even  the  best  warriors  do  not  detect  and  na- 
ture often  cleverly  hides  for  a  time  some  unprec- 
edented conditions.  Such  has  been  the  case  on  the 
Hondo  project  in  New  Mexico,  where  for  the  present 
at  least  the  engineers  have  been  foiled  in  their  ef- 
forts to  store  the  irregular  floods  by  conditions  not 
revealed  by  preliminary  investigations. 

The  principal  features  of  this  project  are  the  er- 
ratic water  supply  coming  from  the  mountains,  a 
natural  basin  offering  opportunities  for  storage  of 
the  floods  and  a  topography  such  that  when  these 
flood  waters  come  they  are  held  for  a  time  in  the 
basin,  from  which  they  can  be  taken  by  a  deep  cut- 
ting and  carried  to  lands  partly  irrigated  and  which 
are  highly  productive  when  fully  supplied  with 
water.  The  key  to  the  situation  is  the  reservoir  situ- 
ated above  the  upper  edge  of  the  irrigable  lands, 
amid  rolling  foot  hills  and,  in  a  state  of  nature,  with 
a  little  lake  or  pond  in  the  bottom  wrhich  quickly  dried 
during  the  heat  of  summer.  It  was  obvious  to  every 
one  that  if  the  muddy  waters  of  the  Hondo  could  be 

242 


HONDO  PEOJECT  243 

turned  into  this  basin  and  then  taken  out  when 
needed  for  the  irrigation  of  the  dry  lands,  great 
prosperity  would  follow.  The  fact  that  the  basin, 
when  filled,  would  not  hold  water  for  any  consid- 
erable length  of  time  was  not  discovered  until  after 
the  reservoir  had  been  constructed,  even  though  pre- 
liminary investigation  had  been  made  and  the  ex- 
perts available  at  that  time  had  given  a  favourable 
verdict  on  the  questions  at  issue. 

Whether  or  not  the  preliminary  work  was  suffi- 
ciently thorough  may  be  a  debatable  question  but,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  investment  made  in  this  project 
has  not  been  remunerative  and,  although  the  total 
sum  involved  is  relatively  small  compared  with  that 
invested  in  other  works,  yet  the  inability  of  this 
reservoir  to  hold  water  has  been  more  widely 
heralded  than  the  notable  successes  made  with 
greater  and  more  difficult  undertakings ! 

The  Eio  Hondo,  from  which  the  project  receives 
its  name,  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Eio 
Bonito  and  the  Eio  Euidoso  in  Lincoln  County,  New 
Mexico,  west  of  the  famous  "  Stake  Plains "  of 
Texas.  These  two  streams  rise  in  the  Sierra  Blanca 
or  White  Mountains,  about  20  miles  apart,  and  drain 
the  eastern  slope  of  the  range,  their  head  waters  be- 
ing protected  by  the  Lincoln  Forest  Eeserve. 

The  White  Mountains  are  situated  about  120  miles 
west  of  the  project,  and  have  an  extreme  altitude  of 
12,000  feet,  the  highest  point  in  the  state,  and  are 
well  covered  with  timber.  All  along  the  lower 
reaches  of  the  streams  are  fertile  valleys,  and  the 
climatic  conditions  being  favourable,  the  Mexicans 
established  irrigation  farms  here  many  years  ago. 


244       KECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

Previous  to  the  year  1869  the  Eio  Hondo  had  a 
perennial  flow  through  its  entire  course,  and  at  that 
time  the  land  lying  to  the  southwest  and  almost  ad- 
jacent to  the  present  town  of  Eoswell,  was  culti- 
vated by  irrigation  from  this  stream.  In  1869  there 
was  a  great  influx  of  population  into  this  region, 
and  as  Fort  Stanton  was  a  military  post  of  some 
size,  affording  a  ready  market  for  large  quantities 
of  forage,  grains,  vegetables,  and  fruit,  and  offering 
protection  from  the  depredations  of  the  Mescalero 
Apaches,  the  available  lands  along  the  sources  of 
the  Hondo  and  for  fifteen  miles  along  its  own  course 
were  soon  occupied,  and  the  normal  flow  of  the 
streams  fully  appropriated. 

This  flow  was  fairly  to  be  relied  upon  in  the  upper 
reaches  of  the  two  tributary  streams  during  the 
summer  season,  but  the  lower  reaches  of  the  Hondo 
invariably  became  dry  during  the  late  spring  and  the 
summer  months,  except  during  the  periods  of  flood. 
The  main  rains  are  in  the  summer  and  as  the  coun- 
try drained  by  these  streams  is  rough  and  the  can- 
yons exceedingly  steep  and  precipitous  the  percent- 
age of  run-off  is  very  high.  Both  the  Benito  and 
Euidoso  flow  through  narrow  and  deep  valleys,  and 
the  irrigation  of  their  lands,  and  those  of  the  upper 
portion  of  the  Hondo,  is  carried  on  by  ditches  taken 
directly  from  the  rivers,  the  water  being  taken  by 
low  diversion  dams,  usually  made  of  brush  and  loose 
stones,  the  flow  into  the  ditches  being  controlled  by 
wooden  headgates. 

During  the  non-irrigating  season  and  the  flood 
periods  water  flows  through  the  entire  course  of  the 
Hondo,  and,  as  no  more  settlers  came  into  the  coun- 


og 

II 

«  £ 


1" 

«     -5 

ii 


o  o 


HONDO  PROJECT  245 

try  after  about  the  year  1884,  it  seemed  reasonable 
to  construct  ditches  along  its  course  for  about  ten 
miles  west  of  Eoswell,  with  the  idea  of  appropriat- 
ing these  flood  waters  so  that  settlers  could  "  prove 
up"  on  their  lands.  Alfalfa  and  orchards  were 
planted  under  these  ditches  with  some  success,  yet, 
owing  to  the  intermittent  and  therefore  unreliable 
flow,  the  owners  were  constantly  on  the  lookout  for 
and  desirous  of  securing  some  means  of  impounding 
the  water  supply. 

Out  of  these  desires  the  New  Mexico  Eeservoir 
and  Irrigation  Company  was  born,  in  1888,  to  give 
way  in  1892  to  the  Pecos  Irrigation  and  Improve- 
ment Company.  In  that  and  the  succeeding  year 
this  company  started  work  on  a  reservoir,  situated 
at  the  site  of  that  occupied  by  the  present  Hondo 
Project,  but  heavy  floods  in  August  brought  the  work 
to  a  standstill.  These  floods  carried  away  the  dam 
of  the  company  at  Lake  Avalon,  on  the  Pecos  Eiver 
six  miles  north  of  Carlsbad,  and  as  it  will  be  recalled 
that  1893  was  the  year  of  a  financial  panic,  no  more 
funds  were  available  and  all  work  ceased. 

Yet  the  site  for  the  reservoir  seemed  so  perfect, 
being  located  in  a  basin — with  a  small  intermittent 
lake  in  the  bottom — surrounded  by  hills,  which  only 
needed  a  few  embankments  to  increase  its  capacity, 
and  the  necessities  of  the  farmers  were  so  acute  and 
urgent,  that  the  company  succeeded  in  raising 
enough  money  to  keep  alive  its  rights,  until  in  1898, 
it  sold  all  its  rights  in  Chaves  County,  New  Mexico, 
which  included  the  Hondo  Eeservoir  site  to  J.  J. 
Hagerman. 

Mr.  Hagerman  was  never  able  to  complete  the 


246        RECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

needful  work  to  give  the  farmers  the  relief  they  re- 
quired, and  yet  they  "hung  on"  to  their  farms  and 
irrigated  with  the  intermittent  flow  whenever  they 
could,  hoping  almost  against  hope  that  relief  would 
surely  come  to  them  in  due  time. 

It  was  then  that  the  U.  S.  Reclamation  Act  was 
passed.  Here  seemed  a  new  way  of  escape.  The 
service  was  appealed  to.  In  due  time  preliminary 
surveys  and  estimates  were  made.  Various  boards 
of  engineers  presented  favourable  reports  on  the 
project.  It  was  imperative,  owing  to  the  unreliabil- 
ity of  the  water  supply,  that  the  reservoirs  have  a 
capacity  sufficient  to  carry  water  for  two  or  three 
dry  years,  and  this  in  turn  rendered  the  question  of 
seepage  a  most  important  once.  The  investigations 
already  made  indicated  the  existence  of  extensive 
deposits  of  seamy  limestone  and  gypsum  in  the 
neighbourhood,  and  these  were  not  considered  over- 
favourable  to  the  location  of  a  large  reservoir.  The 
U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  therefore,  was  called  upon 
to  send  a  trained  geologist  to  make  a  study  of  the 
basin  as  to  its  power  to  resist  leakage.  This  was 
done  and  the  result  of  the  examination  (which  in- 
cluded diamond  drill  borings  of  the  site)  was  that 
no  serious  danger  of  important  leakage  might  be 
apprehended.  On  the  strength  of  this  report,  con- 
struction was  duly  authorized. 

The  reservoir  was  increased  to  a  capacity  of  40,000 
acre-feet  by  the  building  of  six  embankments  at 
various  points  on  the  perimeter  of  the  basin,  these 
being  riprapped  on  the  water  side. 

A  dam  was  built  of  earth,  20  feet  high  and  100  feet 


HONDO  PEOJECT  247 

long,  to  divert  the  water  of  the  Hondo  into  a  canal, 
8,275  feet  long,  and  70  feet  in  width  at  grade,  which 
conveyed  it  to  the  reservoir.  This  canal  was  de- 
signed also  as  a  settling  basin  for  the  silt  with  which 
the  flood  waters  of  the  Hondo  are  heavily  laden,  and 
with  this  in  view,  the  section  of  the  canal  is  trian- 
gular, the  side  next  to  the  embankment  being  ex- 
cavated to  a  sub-grade  four  feet  below  grade. 

The  lower  bank  is  provided  with  two  spill-gates 
and  five  sluice-gates,  through  which  it  was  designed 
to  scour  out  the  accumulated  silt  as  need  required, 
the  silt-laden  waters  returning  thus  to  the  Hondo. 
A  weir  was  placed  at  the  point  of  the  canal's  dis- 
charge into  the  reservoir  to  encourage  the  accumu- 
lation of  silt  by  permitting  only  the  upper  third  of 
the  water  to  discharge. 

From  the  centre  of  the  reservoir  the  water  was 
led  to  the  Hondo  again,  through  a  canal  of  10  feet 
bottom  width,  5,300  feet  in  length.  Here  it  flowed 
down  the  river  channel,  a  distance  of  about  a  mile, 
to  the  edge  of  the  irrigated  district. 

Owing  to  the  river  banks  having  been  built  up  by 
the  deposits  of  silt  higher  than  the  surrounding 
country,  it  was  possible  to  cut  ditches  at  right  angles 
to  the  course  of  the  stream.  Accordingly  three  low 
concrete  diversion  dams,  each  containing  a  flash- 
board  frame  so  arranged  that  it  might  be  dropped 
to  leave  the  river  channel  practically  unobstructed, 
served  to  throw  the  water  into  the  four  lateral 
canals.  The  slope  of  the  surface  is  so  great  as  to 
have  required  the  construction  of  frequent  drops  in 
these  canals  to  hold  them  down  to  a  grade  low 


248       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

enough  to  prevent  a  cutting  velocity.  These  drops 
and  all  similar  structures,  headworks  and  the  like, 
are  of  concrete. 

All  this  work  was  completed  in  May,  1907.  One 
can  well  understand  the  feelings  of  joy  of  the  set- 
tlers when  this  announcement  of  the  completion  of 
the  project  was  made.  The  hopes  and  fears  of  the 
years  were  at  an  end.  An  era  of  prosperity  was 
now  sure,  for  was  not  their  reservoir  ready  to  re- 
ceive flood  waters,  and  keep  them  stored  until  they 
were  needed?  So  it  seemed.  But  fate  at  times 
plays  scurvy  tricks  upon  the  sons  and  daughters  of 
men,  and  such  a  trick  was  now  in  the  cards  ready  to 
be  dealt. 

As  soon  as  the  flood-waters  began  to  pour  into  the 
reservoir  considerable  leakage  occurred  and  the 
quantity  of  this  rapidly  increased  by  the  enlarge- 
ment of  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  basin.  Puddling 
was  resorted  to  and  for  a  short  time  seemed  to  be 
successful.  Blasting  of  the  rock  by  dynamite  was 
also  tried,  followed  by  back-filling  with  carefully 
selected  rock  and  clay,  but  the  leakages  increased 
instead  of  diminishing.  The  more  water  flowed  in 
the  greater  became  the  losses,  and  fears  were  gen- 
dered that  the  embankments  might  be  imperilled. 

When  the  outflow  increased  to  200  cubic  feet  a 
second  all  efforts  at  prevention  and  consequent 
storage  were  abandoned.  The  canal  system  is  still 
used  for  irrigating  such  land  as  can  be  served  by  the 
unregulated  flow  of  the  river,  but  this  is  so  meagre 
and  uncertain  that  results  are  very  small. 

Mr.  A.  P.  Davis  thus  states  his  conclusions  as  to 
the  Hondo  Eeservoir  and  its  lessons : 


HONDO  PEOJECT  249 

The  Pecos  Valley  and  vicinity  for  long  distances  above 
and  below  this  point  is  largely  of  gypsum  formation,  and 
extensive  leaks  have  developed  in  the  reservoir  built  near 
Carlsbad  in  gypsum  formation  by  the  Pecos  Irrigation  Com- 
pany. It  is  the  author's  opinion,  not  as  a  geologist  but  as 
an  engineer,  that  the  depression  which  constitutes  the  reser- 
voir site  of  the  Hondo  project  was  formed  by  the  percolation 
of  underground  waters  through  great  deposits  of  gypsum 
and  the  gradual  solution  and  erosion  of  those  deposits  until 
extensive  caves  were  formed,  which  finally  collapsed  under 
the  weight  of  the  overlying  earth  and  caused  a  depression 
or  dry  lake  which  formed  the  site  for  the  reservoir  adopted. 
The  lesson  is  that  natural  depressions,  situated  at  a  distance 
from  natural  drainage  lines,  should  be  regarded  with  sus- 
picion, especially  when  occurring  in  rock  in  which  caverns 
may  be  expected  to  occur. 

Similar  experiences,  confirming  the  opinions  ex- 
pressed above,  have  been  had  in  the  case  of  other 
similar  enterprises  within  this  region  of  gypsum  im- 
pregnated rocks.  Various  cattle  companies  have 
endeavoured  to  build  reservoirs  and  the  railroad 
corporations  have  constructed  large  earthen  tanks, 
practically  all  of  which  have  failed  because  of  the 
fact  that  after  water  has  been  accumulated  in  the 
basins  to  a  certain  depth,  it  has  gradually  percolated 
down  into  the  underlying  rocks  and  has  broken 
through  the  relatively  impervious  soil  or  sub-soil. 
Under  a  moderate  head,  several  of  these  reservoirs 
have  been  successful  for  a  time,  but  later  have  failed 
either  by  the  "bottom  dropping  out"  and  the  water 
escaping  through  cavities  or  by  the  dissolving  away 
of  the  rock  under  the  dams,  permitting  these  to 
settle  and  finally  to  be  destroyed  by  the  rapidly  in- 
creasing stream. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

TAMING   THE   BIO   GRANDE 
THE   KIO   GEANDE   PEOJECT TEXAS 

El  Rio  Grande,  El  Paso  del  Norte — what  pictures 
of  Spanish  conquist adores  do  not  these  names  bring 
to  mind?  Coronado  and  his  swashbuckling  band  of 
cavaliers  and  attendant  commoners  and  Indians; 
Espejo,  Ofiate  and  all  the  incomers  who  expected  to 
find  wealth  untold  in  the  new  land  to  the  north,  prac- 
tically all  came  from  New  Spain,  Mexico,  by  way  of 
El  Paso  and  the  Bio  Grande.  Then  that  swift 
pouring  down  the  river,  of  out  goers,  led  by  the  gov- 
ernor of  New  Mexico,  Otermin,  after  the  uprising  of 
the  Pueblo  Indians  in  1680.  There  were  1,000  of 
them,  men,  women,  and  children,  governor,  garrison, 
and  three  friars  who  had  escaped  the  slaughter,  and 
they  finally  camped  at  what  is  now  El  Paso,  where 
for  twenty  years  or  more  the  Franciscans  had  wor- 
shipped at  the  Mission  of  Guadalupe.  To  this  up- 
rising and  consequent  flight  of  Spaniards  we  owe  the 
founding  of  El  Paso.  The  Mission  had  made  of  it  a 
placid  refuge,  now  it  was  established  as  a  presidio 
for  the  reconquest  and  protection  of  New  Mexico. 

Long  prior  to  the  time  of  the  Spaniards,  however, 
the  valley  of  the  Eio  Grande  had  been  occupied  by 
the  Indians,  and  the  various  Pueblo  peoples, — those 
irrigationists  of  prehistoric  times,  whose  ancestors 
left  long  miles  of  canals  also  in  the  Salt  Eiver  Val- 
ley,— had  diverted  the  water  into  their  canals  and 

250 


TAMING  THE  EIO  GRANDE  251 

ditches  all  along  its  course,  cultivating  therewith,  in 
primitive  fashion,  the  grains  and  vegetables  upon 
which  they  largely  subsisted. 

Thus  the  conquist adores  found  this  valley,  and  it 
looked  good  to  them  after  their  wearisome  miles  of 
desert  through  which  they  had  travelled  from  Sonora 
to  reach  it.  Then,  when  they  themselves  took  pos- 
session of  the  land,  they  continued  the  work  and  ex- 
panded it,  until  the  Anglo-Saxon  settler  came  into 
Colorado  and  northern  New  Mexico.  These  vigor- 
ous and  aggressive  people,  knowing  nothing — and 
possibly  caring  less — about  the  fields  below  that  had 
been  cultivated  for  centuries,  and  the  needs  of  the 
Mexican  followers  of  the  Spaniard,  began  to  divert 
the  waters  for  their  own  use.  The  more  this  was 
done  the  less  water  there  was  for  the  fields  lower 
down,  until  it  became  no  uncommon  thing  for  the 
river  to  go  dry  before  it  Beached  El  Paso,  and  hun- 
dreds of  acres  that  had  been  cultivated  for  centuries 
reverted  to  their  original  desert  condition. 

Hence  when  the  Anglo-Saxon  began  to  elbow  the 
Mexican  of  the  lower  Rio  Grande  he  found  here 
scores  of  miles  of  old  ditches  which  suggested  use 
for  his  own  benefit.  But,  though  he  might  start  to 
water  the  land  he  lived  upon,  and  succeed  in  growing 
crops  during  the  flood  season,  the  flow  too  often 
ceased  when  it  was  imperative  that  he  have  it.  And 
the  Mexicans,  below  the  boundary  line  between 
the  two  countries,  also  suffering  in  like  manner, 
suits  were  instituted  by  the  Mexican  government 
against  the  United  States  government  to  prevent  the 
settlers  on  the  American  side  from  using  up  the 
whole  of  the  flow. 


252        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

For  the  Eio  Grande,  sometimes,  is  torrential  in  its 
wild  floods,  and  again,  it  ceases  entirely,  not  a  single 
trickle  of  water  being  found  in  its  sandy  bed.  It 
rises  in  Colorado  and  flows  southward  the  entire 
length  of  New  Mexico;  for  a  distance  of  four  miles 
above  El  Paso,  forming  the  boundary  between  Texas 
and  New  Mexico,  then  for  1,300  miles  it  winds  its 
tortuous  way,  forming  the  boundary  between  Texas 
and  Mexico,  finally  emptying  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Above  El  Paso  it  has  a  length  of  about  900  miles,  and 
a  drainage  area  of  38,000  square  miles.  Its  head- 
waters in  the  basin  of  Colorado  and  New  Mexico  are 
found  in  snow-clad  mountain  peaks.  When  the 
melting  time  occurs,  spring  and  early  summer,  the 
river  rises  higher  and  higher,  and  in  the  autumn  and 
winter  it  flows  but  slightly.  The  major  portion  of 
the  New  Mexico  drainage  area  is  arid  and  desert  in 
character,  and  the  meagre  precipitation  is  erratic 
in  consequence. 

The  permanent  summer  flow  of  water 'is  entirely 
appropriated  in  the  upper  reaches  of  the  river,  leav- 
ing for  the  southern  portion  of  New  Mexico  little 
more  than  the  floods  which  occur  at  irregular  inter- 
vals. These  used  to  wash  out  the  temporary  dams 
of  brush  and  rock  that  were  employed,  and  which 
could  not  be  rebuilt  until  the  water  subsided. 

This  was  the  state  of  affairs  when  the  Reclama- 
tion Service  was  called  upon  for  aid.  It  was  soon 
evident  that  permanent  dams  were  required  at  the 
head  of  each  of  the  small  valleys  that  line  the  river. 
Indeed  it  has  not  inaptly  been  said  that  a  map  of  this 
river  appears  like  a  link  of  irregular-sized  sausages, 
reaching  from  San  Marcial,  N.  M.,  to  El  Paso,  Texas. 


TAMING  THE  EIO  GEANDE  253 

The  International  Boundary  Commission  was  also 
called  upon  to  help  solve  the  problem.  It  worked 
out  a  plan  whereby  water  would  be  stored  in  the  Bio 
Grande,  by  building  a  dam  just  above  El  Paso,  which 
would  serve  the  needs  of  50,000  acres  of  land,  more 
than  half  of  which  were  on  the  Mexican  side.  This 
plan,  however,  did  not  utilize  the  entire  flow  of  the 
river,  and  not  only  this  but  it  lacked  both  storage 
capacity  and  irrigable  land.  It  furnished  no  water 
for  irrigating  land  in  New  Mexico — where  it  was 
largely  needed — and  at  the  same  time  would  sub- 
merge a  large  acreage  in  that  State.  It  was  not  to 
be  wondered  at,  therefore,  that  the  project  was  un- 
hesitatingly condemned  by  all  New  Mexicans. 

Chief  Engineer  Davis  of  the  Service  had  made 
himself  personally  familiar  with  the  peculiar  hydro- 
graphic  and  other  conditions  of  the  Eio  Grande 
Eiver.  He  knew  that  the  enormous  floods  which 
occur  do  not  come  with  any  regularity,  and  the  total 
flow  in  some  years  is  less  than  one-twelfth  that  of 
others.  The  amount  of  silt  carried  is  excessive,  and 
this  would  be  caught  and  held  by  any  reservoir,  ir- 
respective of  its  size.  With  a  small  reservoir  this 
would  soon  become  a  serious  problem.  He  saw, 
therefore,  that  it  was  imperative  that  the  reservoir 
be  as  large  and  deep  as  possible,  so  as  to  minimize 
evaporation,  to  have  ample  capacity  for  carrying 
surplus  waters  from  "fat"  years  to  "lean"  and  a 
surplus  capacity  for  silt  accumulations,  so  that  the 
sediment  would  not  materially  encroach  upon  the 
necessary  water-storage  capacity  for  many  years. 
Such  a  site  he  had  found  in  1902  in  the  canyon  below 
Elephant  Butte,  where  a  dam  could  be  erected  that 


254       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

would  back  up  the  water  for  about  forty  miles,  with- 
out submerging  any  large  body  of  good  land  or 
washing  out  any  railroad,  and  that  would  give  stor- 
age capacity  for  over  two  million  acre-feet  of  water, 
capable  of  irrigating  180,000  acres  of  land.  Later 
studies  revealed  that  the  reservoir  could  be  built  so 
as  to  hold  upward  of  two  and  a  half  million  acre- 
feet  of  water. 

After  scientific  tests  had  reasonably  demonstrated 
that  this  could  be  accomplished  an  agreement  was 
made  with  the  Republic  of  Mexico  to  deliver  it  at 
the  Acequia  Madre, — the  Mexican  Canal  at  the  head 
of  the  El  Paso  Valley,— 60,000  acre-feet  of  water  an- 
nually, Mexico  on  her  part  waiving  all  claims  for 
indemnity  for  the  adverse  diversion  of  the  Eio 
Grande  waters.  Subsequently  the  State  of  Texas 
became  a  beneficiary  through  an  enlargement  of  the 
Eeclamation  Law,  and  an  appropriation  of  a  million 
dollars  was  especially  made  by  Congress  to  cover  the 
cost  of  the  Mexican  share  of  building  the  dam. 

It  was  then  decided  to  build  diversion  dams  at 
the  head  of  each  principal  canal  along  the  river, 
below  the  large  dam,  which  latter  should  provide  for 
all  their  necessities.  The  demand  was  found  to 
total  620,000  acre-feet  annually,  sufficient  to  irrigate 
about  155,000  acres  and  provide  for  all  losses  by 
seepage  and  evaporation.  The  Mexican  treaty  obli- 
gations required  another  60,000  acre-feet,  and  allow- 
ing a  loss  of,  possibly,  20,000  acre-feet  for  all  water 
turned  out  for  this  purpose,  that  would  make  the 
total  annual  draft  on  the  Elephant  Butte  dam  amount 
to  700,000  acre-feet. 

The  records  of  the  past  twenty  years  show  an  an- 


ELEPHANT  BUTTE  DAM 
Rio  GRANDE  PROJECT,  NEW  MEXICO-TEXAS 


COUNTRY  HOME  IN  THE  MESILLA  VALLEY,  NEAR  LAS  CRUCES, 

NEW  MEXICO 
Rio  GRANDE  PROJECT,  NEW  MEXICO-TEXAS 


TAMING  THE  EIO  GEANDE  255 

nual  flow  at  the  reservoir  site  varying  from  as  low 
as  200,729  acre-feet  in  1902,  to  2,422,008  acre-feet 
in  1905,  with  four  years  in  succession  when  the  in- 
flow would  have  been  below  the  needed  700,000  acre- 
feet,  viz.,  1899,  239,434;  1900,  467,703;  1901,  656,252; 
1902,  200,729  acre-feet.  Only  in  one  year,  however, 
would  the  stored  water  have  fallen  perilously  low 
and  that  would  have  been  in  the  year  1902  when  the 
inflow  was  so  very  low. 

Accordingly  the  Elephant  Butte  Dam  was  built. 
It  is  a  straight  gravity  structure  of  cyclopean  con- 
crete, with  a  length  of  about  1,200  feet.  Its  height 
from  the  lowest  foundation  to  the  roadway  over  the 
top  is  about  300  feet,  over  90  feet  of  which  is  below 
the  river  bed.  The  top  width  is  20  feet.  A  spill- 
way lip  is  provided  at  the  west  end,  seven  feet  below 
the  roadway.  In  addition  to  this  lip  spillway,  there 
is  also  a  movable  spillway,  consisting  of  four  large 
wells,  ten  feet  in  diameter,  in  the  rock  bench  just 
up  stream  from  the  spillway  lip.  Each  well  is 
closed  by  a  steel  cylinder  gate  which  can  be  raised  or 
lowered  at  will.  Each  well  merges  into  a  tunnel 
which  passes  under  the  spillway  lip  and  discharges 
into  the  channel  below.  The  movable  spillways 
thus  provide  an  additional  regulation  in  time  of 
flood,  whether  above  or  below  the  dam,  for,  in  the 
latter  case,  the  flow  from  the  dam  can  be  entirely 
closed  until  the  flood  has  subsided. 

There  are  twelve  regular  outlets  provided. 
Those  nearest  the  left  bank  are  ultimately  to  be  used 
in  connection  with  penstocks  for  the  development 
of  electric-power.  There  are  also  sluicing  gates, 
as  well  as  the  main  service  gates.  All  these  gates 


256       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

are  provided  with  steel  shutters  operated  by 
hydraulic  power,  water  being  furnished  from  the 
large  supply  tank  on  the  hill  which  was  used  during 
construction. 

Large  rocks  were  embedded  in  the  structure  to 
the  extent  of  from  20  to  25  per  cent,  and  its  solid 
contents  are  in  excess  of  600,000  cubic  yards.  For 
the  transportation  of  men  and  materials  a  railroad 
line,  eleven  miles  long,  was  constructed  to  connect  at 
Engel  with  the  Albuquerque  and  El  Paso  branch  of 
the  Santa  Fe. 

While  the  dam  was  building  the  river  was  di- 
verted through  a  flume  built  on  a  bench  excavated 
on  the  right  bank.  Where  the  flume  crossed  the 
dam  site  it  was  built  of  concrete  and  finally  incor- 
porated into  the  dam.  The  actual  cost  of  the  dam 
was  approximately  five  millions  of  dollars.  It  was 
designed  under  the  direction  of  Louis  C.  Hill,  and 
will  ever  remain  as  a  tribute  to  his  engineering 
genius  and  practical  skill.  The  general  plan  of  the 
project  as  a  whole  was  due  to  Director  Davis. 

The  irrigable  lands  to  be  served  by  this  dam  lie 
along  the  Eio  Grande  in  five  separate  valleys.  The 
first  valley,  is  the  Palomas,  and  it  heads  about  six 
miles  below  the  dam,  with  the  Eincon  Valley  about 
twenty-four  miles,  the  upper  Mesilla  Valley  about 
sixty-nine  miles,  the  lower  Mesilla  Valley  eighty 
miles  and  the  El  Paso  Valley  one  hundred  and  twenty 
miles  below  the  dam.  Between  these  valleys  the 
river  flows  through  comparatively  narrow  gorges 
and  as  a  consequence  separate  diversions  and  canal 
systems  are  necessary  for  the  proper  irrigation  of 
each  valley. 


TAMING  THE  EIO  GRANDE  257 

The  first  of  these  dams  was  built  in  1907,  at  Pen- 
asco  Eock,  and  is  named  the  Leasburg  Dam,  from 
the  old  town  near  by.  It  supplies  the  uppermost 
canal  operated  at  the  present  time  by  the  Service. 
The  dam  is  a  concrete  overflow  weir,  of  ogee  section, 
about  nine  feet  high  and  600  feet  long,  with  an  ex- 
tension  of  1,500  feet  at  the  west  end  in  the  form  of 
an  earthen  dike.  The  concrete  weir  is  founded  on 
piling  driven  into  the  silt  of  the  river-bed  to  a  depth 
of  20  to  25  feet.  A  reinforced  concrete  apron,  23 
feet  wide  and  two  feet  thick  receives  the  overflow 
and  conducts  it  harmlessly  away  from  the  dam. 
The  west  abutment  of  the  dam  is  founded  on  piling 
where  it  joins  the  earthen  dike.  The  east  or  left 
abutment  is  founded  on  rock,  the  base  of  "Penasco 
Eock,"  a  small  peninsula  jutting  out  into  the  river 
channel.  About  80  feet  inland  from  the  end  of  the 
dam  three  sluice-gates  are  placed,  each  eight  feet 
high  with  five  feet  clear  openings.  Fifteen  feet  in- 
land from  these  gates  are  the  gates  to  the  canal,  of 
which  there  are  five,  each  seven  feet  high,  with  five 
feet  width  of  opening. 

From  this  dam  the  Leasburg  Canal  receives  the 
water  for  three  of  the  community  ditches  of  the 
Mesilla  Valley  below.  One  of  the  most  interesting 
points  about  this  canal  (which  is  itself  a  small  river) 
is  that  it  is  to  be  run  over  a  twelve-foot  drop,  where 
a  turbine  will  develop  electric  power  equivalent  to 
that  of  six  hundred  horses.  This  will  furnish  light 
and  power  for  the  Valley  towns  below,  and  for  the 
economical  irrigation,  by  electrically  driven  pumps, 
of  mesa  lands  in  the  vicinity  of  Selden.  These 
lands,  like  those  of  the  lower  Valleys,  are  wronder- 


258        EECLAIMING  THE  ABID  WEST 

fully  adapted  to  the  growing  of  fruits,  berries  and 
melons  of  the  finest  quality,  size  and  colouring. 

The  Leasburg  Canal,  too,  is  vital  to  the  success  of 
a  large  proportion  of  the  farmers  under  the  project ; 
for  it  supplies  water  for  36,772  acres  of  irrigable 
land.  Of  this,  10,528  acres  are  under  the  Dona  Ana 
Community  ditch;  7,620  are  under  the  Las  Cruces 
Community  ditch,  and  14,070  are  under  the  Mesilla 
Community  ditch.  In  addition  to  this,  it  will  carry 
water  for  the  Picacho  feed  canal  to  the  Picacho 
flume  over  the  Rio  Grande,  thus  supplying  4,554 
acres  more. 

For  another  portion  of  the  Mesilla  Valley,  an- 
other dam  has  been  erected  southwest  of  Las  Cruces. 
It  is  a  low  diversion  weir,  303  feet  between  abut- 
ments, built  of  concrete  with  an  ogee  movable  crest, 
standing  two  feet  above  a  reinforced  concrete  apron 
which  covers  the  river-bed  for  a  distance  of  eighteen 
and  a  half  feet  up  stream  from  the  weir.  There  is 
also  a  concrete  apron  below  the  dam  to  receive  the 
falling  water.  A  movable  crest,  four  and  a  half 
feet  high,  surmounts  the  weir,  in  the  form  of  a 
series  of  nine  radial  or  "Tainter"  gates,  to  be 
raised  in  time  of  flood  to  prevent  inundation  of 
adjacent  lands.  A  steel  bridge  surmounts  the  en- 
tire structure  and  from  this  the  radial  gates  are 
operated  by  means  of  wire  ropes  upon  drums  oper- 
ated by  hand,  or  by  power  furnished  by  an  8-H.  P. 
gasoline  engine,  carried  from  one  gate  to  another 
on  a  car.  The  canals  head  on  each  side  of  the  river 
at  this  dam,  the  one  on  the  right  having  a  capacity 
of  430  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  that  on  the  left 
300  cubic  feet  per  second.  The  canal  gates  are  at 


TAMING  THE  EIO  GEANDE  259 

right  angles  to  the  dam.  A  sluiceway,  45  feet  wide, 
to  clear  the  gate  entrances  of  mud,  is  provided  at 
each  end  of  the  dam,  each  controlled  by  two 
' i  Tainter ' '  gates,  five  and  a  half  feet  high,  with  sills 
a  foot  below  the  crest  of  the  main  weir. 

The  direct  highway  from  the  north  down  to  El 
Paso  passes  down  the  east  side,  crossing  the  river 
on  this  dam.  This  road  connects  the  towns  and  sup- 
ply points  of  Mesquite,  around  which  are  4,230  acres 
of  irrigable  land;  Vado,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
which  are  4,016  acres  of  irrigable  land;  Berino,  with 
7,910  acres  irrigable,  and  Anthony,  with  920  acres. 

In  this  section,  too,  are  located  two  of  the  largest 
tracts  of  land  under  individual  ownership  that  are 
to  be  found  under  the  Elephant  Butte  Project. 
These  are  the  Brazito  and  the  Santo  Tomas  Grants. 
In  the  Brazito  are  included  about  5,000  acres  of 
land  irrigable  under  the  project,  with  about  2,000 
acres  of  bench  lands  that  may  be  brought  into  culti- 
vation by  pumping;  while  the  Santo  Tomas  tract  ag- 
gregates some  3,500  acres  of  irrigable  area. 

At  the  upper  edge  of  the  city  of  El  Paso  a  diver- 
sion dam  of  masonry  was  built  many  years  ago. 
One  end  of  this  dam  is  within  the  city  limits  and  the 
other  on  Mexican  soil.  This  dam  has  been  repaired, 
and  the  canal  it  supplies — called  the  Franklin — pur- 
chased by  the  Eeclamation  Service  in  1912,  for  $125,- 
000.  In  1914-1915  it  was  enlarged  from  a  capacity 
of  150  cubic  feet  per  second  to  a  capacity  approxi- 
mately 400  feet.  Through  the  city  of  El  Paso  the 
greater  part  of  this  canal  is  lined  with  concrete  and 
protected  by  an  ornamental  iron  fence. 

Of  the  water  users  at  the  present  time  on  the 


260       EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

project,  approximately  60  per  cent  are  Mexicans  and 
40  per  cent  Americans.  American  ideals  of  effi- 
ciency are  gradually  supplanting  the  older  indiffer- 
ent ways  and  more  scientific  methods  are  being 
adopted  for  the  irrigation  and  development  of  the 
project. 

A  large  variety  of  crops  can  be  grown  and  with 
the  excellent  markets  available  can  be  made  to  re- 
turn good  profits.  The  growing  season  lasts  for 
nine  months  and  irrigation  is  practised  for  eleven 
months  of  the  year.  At  the  present  time  alfalfa,  as 
is  general  throughout  the  West,  is  the  leading  crop, 
approximately  60  per  cent  of  the  irrigated  acreage 
being  planted  to  this  forage  crop.  Grains  of  all 
kinds,  beans,  corn,  sorghum,  canteloupes,  deciduous 
fruits,  small  fruits,  grapes,  sweet  potatoes,  peas, 
garden  truck,  in  fact  nearly  all  the  products  of  the 
temperate  zone  can  be  grown  successfully.  Experi- 
ments are  now  being  conducted  in  the  growing  of 
cotton  and  sugar  beets,  and  it  is  expected  that  ere 
long  these  two  products  will  become  leading  crops. 

The  Eio  Grande  Project  is  especially  adapted  to 
the  raising  of  livestock  and  this  industry  has  in- 
creased rapidly  since  the  water  supply  has  been  as- 
sured. The  mild  winters  with  green  feed  available 
a  great  portion  of  the  year,  and  summer  weather  in 
which  there  are  no  periods  of  excessive  heat,  com- 
bine to  make  the  raising  of  livestock  a  most  profit- 
able undertaking.  During  the  season  of  1915  sev- 
eral hundred  head  of  dairy  stock  were  shipped  to 
the  project  from  the  dairy  section  of  Iowa,  Wiscon- 
sin and  Michigan,  and  nearly  every  progressive 
farmer  is  laying  the  foundation  of  a  first-class  dairy 


LA  MESA  SCHOOLHOUSE 
Rio  GRANDE  PROJECT,  NEW  MEXICO-TEXAS 


CUTTING  ALFALFA 
Rio  GRANDE  PROJECT,  NEW  MEXICO-TEXAS 


TAMING  THE  EIO  GEANDE  261 

herd.  Already  dairying  has  taken  a  leading  place. 
Poultry  farming  is  also  profitable  and  good  markets 
are  available  close  at  hand  for  all  poultry  products. 

At  present  the  system  is  capable  of  irrigating 
47,160  acres,  and  every  acre  of  this  is  actually  signed 
up.  The  irrigating  season  lasts  274  days,  from  Feb- 
ruary 15  to  November  15.  The  average  elevation 
of  the  irrigable  lands  is  3,700  feet  above  sea  level. 
The  average  annual  rainfall,  computed  from  the 
records  of  thirty  years,  10.07  inches.  In  1914  it 
was  17.02  inches.  The  temperature  ranges  from 
zero  to  100  degrees  Fahr. 

The  area  of  the  drainage  basin  is  37,000  square 
miles.  At  San  Marcial,  N.  M.,  the  annual  run-off 
in  acre-feet,  from  1895  to  1914  inclusive,  was,  maxi- 
mum, 2,422,000;  minimum,  200,700;  mean,  1,129,400. 
At  El  Paso,  Texas,  1889  to  1914  inclusive,  maximum, 
2,010,000;  minimum,  50,700;  mean,  925,000. 

New  canals,  etc.,  are  in  contemplation  for  Las 
Palomas  and  Eincon  Valleys,  and  the  works  in  the 
El  Paso  Valley  will  be  supplemented  and  enlarged. 

The  estimated  total  cost  of  the  project  is  $10,- 
000,000. 

It  is  contemplated  that  in  due  time  electric  power 
will  be  generated  at  Elephant  Butte  Dam,  which  will 
be  used  for  the  pumping  of  water  up  to  the  bench  or 
"mesa"  lands  lying  along  the  rim  of  the  Valleys, 
but  being  too  high  for  irrigation  from  the  gravity 
canals.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Anthony,  several 
owners  of  small  orchards  have  demonstrated  the 
wonderful  value  of  these  mesa  lands  for  fruit-rais- 
ing, these  men  having  produced  peaches,  plums. 


TAMING  THE  EIO  GEANDE          261 

herd.  Already  dairying  has  taken  a  leading  place. 
Poultry  farming  is  also  profitable  and  good  markets 
are  available  close  at  hand  for  all  poultry  products. 

At  present  the  system  is  capable  of  irrigating 
47,160  acres,  and  every  acre  of  this  is  actually  signed 
up.  The  irrigating  season  lasts  274  days,  from  Feb- 
ruary 15  to  November  15.  The  average  elevation 
of  the  irrigable  lands  is  3,700  feet  above  sea  level. 
The  average  annual  rainfall,  computed  from  the 
records  of  thirty  years,  10.07  inches.  In  1914  it 
was  17.02  inches.  The  temperature  ranges  from 
zero  to  100  degrees  Fahr. 

The  area  of  the  drainage  basin  is  37,000  square 
miles.  At  San  Marcial,  N.  M.,  the  annual  run-off 
in  acre-feet,  from  1895  to  1914  inclusive,  was,  maxi- 
mum, 2,422,000;  minimum,  200,700;  mean,  1,129,400. 
At  El  Paso,  Texas,  1889  to  1914  inclusive,  maximum, 
2,010,000;  minimum,  50,700;  mean,  925,000. 

New  canals,  etc.,  are  in  contemplation  for  Las 
Palomas  and  Rincon  Valleys,  and  the  works  in  the 
El  Paso  Valley  will  be  supplemented  and  enlarged. 

The  estimated  total  cost  of  the  project  is  $10,- 
000,000. 

It  is  contemplated  that  in  due  time  electric  power 
will  be  generated  at  Elephant  Butte  Dam,  which  will 
be  used  for  the  pumping  of  water  up  to  the  bench  or 
"mesa"  lands  lying  along  the  rim  of  the  Valleys, 
but  being  too  high  for  irrigation  from  the  gravity 
canals.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Anthony,  several 
owners  of  small  orchards  have  demonstrated  the 
wonderful  value  of  these  mesa  lands  for  fruit-rais- 
ing, these  men  having  produced  peaches,  plums, 


262       EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

apples,  melons,  canteloupes,  berries,  and  other  fruits 
and  vine-stuff  of  size,  quality,  flavour  and  colouring 
that  cannot  be  surpassed. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  Selden,  too,  sixteen 
miles  above  Las  Cruces,  and  near  the  Leasburg 
power  drop,  is  a  beautiful  acreage  of  bench  land  that 
will  be  irrigated  from  electrically-driven  pumps,  and 
which  will  no  doubt  be  found  to  produce  as  wonder- 
fully as  do  those  at  Anthony.  In  time,  too,  this 
cheap  power  will  be  transmitted  to  the  lower  Mesilla 
Valley,  in  which  event,  the  Anthony  lands  will  be 
even  more  valuable  than  they  now  are. 

In  1905  two  Water  Users'  Associations  were 
formed  on  the  project :  The  Elephant  Butte  Water 
Users'  Association  of  New  Mexico,  with  headquar- 
ters at  Las  Cruces,  for  lands  under  the  project  in 
New  Mexico,  and  the  El  Paso  Valley  Water  Users' 
Association  of  Texas  for  lands  under  the  project  in 
Texas. 

El  Paso,  Texas,  is  the  largest  city  on  the  project, 
and  it  is  one  of  the  most  rapidly  growing  cities  on 
the  continent. 

In  New  Mexico  the  towns  and  cities  are  Elephant 
Butte,  Hot  Springs,  Las  Palomas,  Arrey,  Derry, 
Garfield,  Salem,  Santa  Teresa,  Hatch,  Eincon,  Sel- 
den, Leasburg,  Donna  Ana,  Las  Cruces,  Old  Mesilla, 
Mesilla,  Mesilla  Park,  Mesquite,  San  Miguel,  La 
Mesa,  Chamberino  and  La  Union. 

The  Project  Manager  is  L.  M.  Lawson,  with  office 
at  El  Paso,  Texas. 


CHAPTEE  XXIII 

PUMPING  FROM   THE   MISSOURI   RIVER. 
THE    WILLISTON    PROJECT,    NORTH    DAKOTA 

The  Williston  Project  is  composed  of  two  units, 
both  of  which  were  designed  originally  to  be  sepa- 
rate projects.  It  was  found  best,  however,  to  com- 
bine them.  They  are  known  as  the  Buf ord-Trenton 
and  the  Williston  units.  The  former  is  located  in 
Williams  County,  North  Dakota,  bordering  the  north 
bank  of  the  Missouri  River,  and  includes  practically 
all  the  land  lying  between  the  Great  Northern  Rail- 
way and  the  Missouri  River,  for  a  distance  of  about 
17  miles  east  of  the  Montana-North  Dakota  State 
line.  This  entire  area  was  at  one  time  a  portion  of 
the  Military  Reservation  of  Fort  Buf  ord,  which  post 
played  an  important  part  in  the  development  of  the 
great  North-west.  The  advancement  of  settlers  and 
the  segregation  of  the  Indians  made  it  unnecessary 
to  maintain  this  post,  and  it  was  abandoned  in  1895. 
The  reservation  was  subdivided  in  1901,  and  in  1903 
it  was  opened  to  entry.  There  were  some  settlers 
within  its  limits  prior  to  this  latter  date,  and  at  the 
close  of  1904  approximately  85  per  cent  of  the  area 
embraced  within  the  limits  of  what  is  now  the  Bu- 
ford-Trenton  unit  had  been  entered.  Buford  is 
close  to  the  junction  of  the  Yellowstone  River  with 
the  Missouri. 

The  Williston  unit  is  a  few  miles  away  to  the 
north-east,  where  the  Little  Muddy  flows  into  the 

263 


264        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

Missouri,  and  the  irrigable  area  comprises  the  bench 
and  bottom  lands  that  are  located  in  the  Little  Muddy 
Valley  for  about  twenty  miles  north  of  Williston, 
and  the  river  bottoms  along  the  Missouri  Eiver  for 
a  distance  of  about  five  miles  east  and  west  of  the 
city. 

There  is  considerable  difference  in  the  character- 
istics of  the  lands  of  both  units.  The  bottom  lands 
of  the  Little  Muddy  are  very  flat,  oftentimes  being 
higher  next  to  the  creek  and  for  this  reason  are  not 
as  well  adapted  to  irrigation  as  bench  lands,  which 
have  some  slope.  In  some  locations  there  is  alkali. 
The  bench  lands  are  rather  rolling,  with  frequent 
knolls  and  depressions,  so  that  it  is  not  possible  to 
bring  the  entire  acreage  under  irrigation,  and  some 
of  the  depressions  cannot  be  readily  drained.  The 
entire  valley  is  free  from  brush  and  supports  a 
growth  of  bluejoint  and  other  native  grasses  and  in 
past  years  has  been  used  for  grazing.  Beyond  the 
bench  lands  the  land  rises  rather  abruptly  for  100 
feet  or  more  to  the  plateau  of  the  Missouri,  which 
extends  for  many  miles  on  either  side  of  the  valley 
and  is  cut  at  frequent  intervals  by  small  creeks. 

The  Missouri  Eiver  bottoms  are  quite  different  in 
their  characteristics.  There  is  an  upper  and  lower 
terrace,  the  former  devoid  of  vegetation  except  a 
thick  growth  of  grass  and  the  latter  covered  with 
brush  and  scattering  timbers.  The  upper  terrace  is 
a  heavy  loam  or  clay  soil  and  in  places  some  gumbo. 
Alkali  is  not  found  in  a  dangerous  amount  except 
in  a  limited  area,  near  Sand  Creek,  north  of  the  rail- 
road track*  The  surface  is  level  and  smooth  and 
well  adapted  to  irrigation. 


PUMPING  BARGE  AT  Low  WATER  ON  THE  MISSOURI  RIVER  AT 

WILLISTON 
WILLISTON  PROJECT,  NORTH  DAKOTA 


PUMPING  BARGE  AT  HIGH  WATER,  WITH  SINGLE  LENGTHS  OF 
DISCHARGE    PIPES    BETWEEN    THE    BALL-JOINTS    ON    THE 
BARGE  AND  BANK  OF  THE  MISSOURI  RIVER 
WILLISTON  PROJECT,  NORTH  DAKOTA 


PUMPING  FKOM  MISSOUEI  RIVER    265 

This  portion  of  North  Dakota,  in  the  early  geo- 
logical periods,  was  included  in  a  great  inland  sea, 
in  which  the  successive  layers  of  rock  were  deposited 
as  sediment,  the  highest  and  most  recent  being  gen- 
erally termed  the  "Fort  Union "  beds  of  sandstone 
and  shale.  In  time  certain  portions  of  this  inland 
lake  became  silted  up  and  converted  into  great 
marshes,  which  supported  a  luxuriant  growth  of 
vegetation.  The  trees  and  plants,  as  they  died  year 
after  year  and  accumulated  under  water,  where  they 
were  protected  from  decay,  were,  in  the  course  of 
time,  converted  into  beds  of  lignite  coal,  which  exist 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  Williston  Project.  One  of  the 
most  common  trees  of  this  period  was  the  poplar, 
and  the  sequoia,  or  redwood,  related  to  the  giant 
trees  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  was  also  a  native  of  North 
Dakota.  These  deposits  of  decaying  vegetable  mat- 
ter were  subsequently  covered  by  later  deposits  of 
shale  and  sandstone,  which  subjected  them  to  great 
pressure  and  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  coal 
veins.  There  is  an  entire  absence  of  any  volcanic 
or  heat  action  connected  with  the  formation,  and 
this  accounts,  to  a  large  part,  for  the  low  grade  of 
coal  to  which  lignite  belongs. 

The  glacial  period  covered  this  portion  of  the 
continent  with  a  vast  sheet  of  ice,  which  started  in 
the  vicinity  of  Hudson  Bay  and  moved  in  a  south- 
westerly direction  up  to  the  present  location  of  the 
Missouri  River.  The  gradual  malting  of  this  vast 
sheet  of  ice  freed  large  streams  of  water,  which 
eroded  channels  and  made  decided  changes  in  the 
earth's  surface.  One  of  the  larger  creeks  formed 
by  the  melting  of  this  vast  ice-sheet  is  the  Little 


266       EECLAIMING  THE  ARID 

Muddy  Creek,  through  the  Williston  unit,  and  the 
valley  as  we  see  it  today  is  the  result  of  these  flood 
waters,  discharging  in  a  southerly  direction  into  the 
Missouri  Eiver.  While  there  is  a  uniform  slope  to- 
wards the  south,  there  are  frequent  knolls  and  de- 
pressions, the  underlying  material  being  in  many 
places  sand  and  gravel,  and  it  is  not  until  the  higher 
lands  are  reached  that  the  unmodified  glacial  drift 
is  encountered.  The  bottom  lands  adjacent  to  the 
creek  are  of  comparatively  more  recent  forma- 
tion, caused  by  silt  being  deposited  during  the  fre- 
quent overflows  of  the  flood  discharge  of  Little 
Muddy  creek. 

The  bottom  lands  of  the  Missouri  Eiver  are  all  of 
recent  formation.  The  river  is  continually  cutting 
away  on  the  concave  curve  of  the  banks  and  deposit- 
ing sand  and  silt  on  the  opposite  side.  In  the  grad- 
ual change  that  takes  place  year  after  year,  the  sand- 
bars are  left  high  and  dry  after  the  June  rise  and 
then  the  wind  begins  its  action,  sweeping  along  the 
sand  until  it  is  caught  among  a  growth  of  willows 
and  then  we  have  the  beginning  of  another  river 
bottom,  which  gradually  accumulates  a  growth,  and 
eventually  a  soil  is  formed  which  is  of  sufficient 
depth  to  class  it  as  agricultural  land. 

The  water  for  the  Williston  Project  is  supplied  by 
the  Missouri  Eiver  which  has  a  drainage  basin  of 
155,000  square  miles.  The  mean  run-off  at  Willis- 
ton  from  May  to  October,  1905  to  1907  was  15,000,000 
acre-feet.  While  there  are  small  creeks  that  flow 
into  the  Little  Muddy  and  the  Missouri  where  the 
flood  waters  might  be  conserved  for  irrigation,  it  was 
impractical  anywhere  near  the  location  of  the  lands 


PUMPING  FEOM  MISSOURI  RIVER    267 

of  this  project  to  divert  and  utilize  them.  Accord- 
ingly surveys  and  estimates  were  made  which  con- 
templated the  irrigation  of  the  lands  by  pumping 
from  the  Missouri  River.  This  river,  however,  is  an 
uncertain  quantity  in  more  ways  than  one.  Not  only 
does  its  flow  vary,  making  extraordinary  rises  and 
falls  in  record  time,  but  it  often  brings  down  on  its 
flood  waters  vast  quantities  of  trees  and  other  drift, 
and,  furthermore,  the  swift  floods  possess  a  cutting 
power,  which  sometimes  eat  into  the  banks  as  if  they 
were  made  of  soft  sugar.  These  factors  of  uncer- 
tainty, therefore,  prohibited  the  building  of  any  per- 
manent structure  for  pumping  purposes,  and  the 
problem  was  finally  solved  by  the  construction  of 
a  floating  pumping-barge  carrying  the  necessary 
pumping  units,  with  flexible  jointed  pipes,  which 
would  discharge  the  water  into  the  settling  basin  on 
shore.  In  this  way  the  average  fluctuation  of  from 
ten  to  fifteen  feet  was  provided  for,  and  by  increas- 
ing the  length  of  the  discharge  pipes  the  barge  could 
be  moored  close  to  the  bank  or  well  out  in  the  chan- 
nel, as  occasion  required,  and  could  be  disconnected 
at  the  close  of  the  pumping-season  and  hauled  out  on 
the  bank.  It  was  a  new  idea,  in  so  far  as  I  know, 
as  were  many  of  the  features  on  the  pumping  proj- 
ects, and  considerable  difficulty  was  experienced  in 
obtaining  qualified  men  to  superintend,  first,  the  de- 
sign, and  then  the  construction  of  these  floating 
pumping  stations. 

It  was  found  that  lifts  were  necessary  of  from  30 
to  about  100  feet,  and  the  question  of  cheap  fuel  for 
the  generation  of  power  then  arose.  As  before  ex- 
plained this  whole  region  is  underlaid  with  lignite. 


268       EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

After  many  borings  and  testings,  a  deposit  was  dis- 
covered near  to  Williston,  which,  on  thorough  test- 
ing, proved  to  be  satisfactory  as  fuel  for  the  genera- 
tion of  power,  though  conditions  were  such  as  to 
demand  the  location  of  the  power-plant  quite  close 
to  the  coal  deposit. 

In  due  time,  therefore,  the  coal  mine  was  opened, 
the  power-generating  plant  established,  and  elec- 
trical power  then  transmitted  over  wires  to  pump- 
ing-stations,  with  plans  for  irrigation  as  follows: 
On  the  Buford-Trenton  unit  water  is  pumped  from 
a  barge  into  a  settling-basin  30  feet  above  the  river, 
and  is  then  lifted  by  a  permanent  pumping-station 
into  a  canal,  50  feet  above  the  settling-basin,  for  the 
irrigation  of  bench  lands  near  Buford.  A  trans- 
mission line  28.3  miles  in  length  delivers  power  for 
the  operation  of  the  pumps. 

The  plan  of  the  Williston  unit  provides  for  a  series 
of  motor-driven  centrifugal  pumps  on  a  barge  in  the 
Missouri  River,  a  settling  basin  receiving  the  water 
from  the  barge,  and  a  main  canal  of  90  second-feet 
capacity  extending  along  the  Little  Muddy  to  the 
power-plant,  where  two  sets  of  steam-driven  tur- 
bines operate  centrifugal  pumps  to  lift  water  51  feet 
into  E  canal.  From  the  main  canal,  about  midway 
between  the  river  and  the  power-plant,  electrically 
driven  pumps  raise  35  second-feet  28  feet  into  B 
canal,  and  from  this  canal  20  second-feet  are  raised 
an  additional  28  feet  into  C  canal.  The  main  power- 
station  is  located  close  to  a  9-foot  vein  of  lignite 
coal,  which  supplies  the  fuel. 

In  1916  the  Service  was  prepared  to  irrigate  on 
the  Buford-Trenton  unit  4,049  acres,  and  on  the  Wil- 


U.  S.  RECLAMATION  SERVICE  COAL  MINE  AND  MINERS 
WILLISTON  PROJECT,  NORTH  DAKOTA 


LARGEST  DROP  IN  SOUTH  CANAL 
TNCOMPAHGRE  PROJECT,  COLORADO 


PUMPING  FROM  MISSOURI  RIVER    269 

listen  unit,  8,189  acres.  The  irrigation  season  be- 
gins from  June  1  to  June  15  and  lasts  about  80  days. 
The  average  elevation  of  the  lands  of  the  project  is 
about  1,900  feet  above  sea  level,  and  the  average 
rainfall  about  13  to  14  inches.  The  range  of  tem- 
perature is  from  49°  Fahr.  below  zero  to  107°  Fahr. 

The  Williston  Project  is  located  on  the  Great 
Northern  line  of  railroad,  and  there  are  several 
small  villages  on  the  lands  besides  Buf  ord,  Trenton, 
and  Williston,  the  latter  being  an  incorporated  city 
with  about  4,500  population. 

The  principal  products  are  alfalfa,  grains,  and 
vegetables.  The  production  of  corn  for  silage  is  in- 
creasing as  well  as  the  output  of  hogs.  Dairying 
has  become  well  established  as  the  local  markets  con- 
sume all  the  butter  product.  Outside  markets  are 
St.  Paul,  Minneapolis,  Duluth  and  Chicago. 

As  the  operation  of  pumping-plants  of  this  char- 
acter is  an  entirely  new  feature  in  irrigation  it  may 
be  interesting  to  recount  a  few  experiences.  The 
season  of  1908  was  accompanied  by  an  exceptionally 
high  June  rise,  with  a  large  amount  of  drift  coming 
down  the  river.  Trees  4  feet  in  diameter  and  40 
feet  long  smashed  into  the  bow  of  the  barge,  giving 
it  severe  jolts,  and  one  night  caused  the  mooring 
lines  to  part  and  the  barge  to  be  held  by  the  dis- 
charge pipes.  On  the  crest  of  the  June  rise  the 
cable  ferry  boat  at  Mondak  came  down,  struck  the 
bow  of  the  barge  and  was  carried  under,  without 
doing  any  damage  except  to  the  ferry  boat.  Besides 
floating  drift  there  was  a  large  amount  of  smaller, 
submerged  drift  which  would  collect  in  the  un- 
screened suction  pipes  and  clog  the  pump  runners, 


270       RECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

necessitating  removing  the  upper  case  of  the  cen- 
trifugal pumps  to  clean  out  the  drift  and  other 
debris.  On  account  of  the  extremely  high  water  and 
possible  damage  to  the  barge,  it  was  disconnected 
June  16  to  19  and  moored  close  to  the  bank. 

As  many  of  the  lower  lands  are  owned  by  non- 
residents, who  do  not  cultivate  or  lease  their  lands 
and  who  are  waiting  for  the  "unearned  increment " 
before  they  sell,  the  project  has  not  made  as  good 
a  showing  as  it  would  have  done  were  all  the  lands 
put  to  actual  use.  There  has  been  considerable  dis- 
satisfaction, also,  at  the  construction  charge  being 
placed  at  $38.00  per  acre,  when  the  land  owners  ex- 
pected it  at  the  original  assumption  of  $25  per  acre. 

Owing  to  these  conditions  the  plant  was  operated 
for  three  years  at  considerable  loss  to  the  Service. 
To  provide  against  such  contingencies  in  future  Con- 
gress passed  an  act  forbidding  the  operation  of 
plants  that  were  not  reasonably  sure  of  meeting  not 
only  maintenance  charges  but  some  of  the  original 
construction  cost,  and  as  the  Water  Users'  Associa- 
tion could  not  meet  the  demand  of  the  law  for  1916 
the  project  was  not  operated  in  1917. 

The  city  of  Williston,  however,  has  been  purchas- 
ing electric  power  for  lighting  and  other  purposes, 
so  the  power  plant  has  been  kept  in  continuous  oper- 
ation. 

Conditions  seem  now  to  be  decidedly  improving  so 
that  in  a  short  time  it  is  hoped  the  farmers  will  be 
reaping  to  the  full  the  benefit  of  the  plant  installed. 

The  present  Project  Manager  is  W.  S.  Arthur, 
with  office  at  Williston,  North  Dakota. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

THE    LAWTON    PKOJECT,  OKLAHOMA 

Seeing  the  great  advantages  that  had  accrued  to 
other  localities  by  the  activities  of  the  Reclamation 
Service  certain  of  the  active  citizens  of  Lawton,  Okla- 
homa, conceived  the  idea  of  calling  upon  it  to  plan 
for  the  irrigation  of  some  2,500  acres  of  land  in  the 
near  vicinity  of  that  city. 

Accordingly,  an  engineer  was  sent  to  study  the 
conditions  and  report  what  could  be  accomplished. 
He  found  an  adequate  water  supply  in  Medicine 
Bluff  and  Little  Medicine  Bluff  Creeks,  with  an 
area  of  drainage  basin  of  110  square  miles.  The 
annual  run-off  at  the  site  of  a  proposed  diversion 
dam  in  1914  was  17,835  acre-feet.  The  city  of  Law- 
ton  had  already  created  a  storage  reservoir,  Lake 
Lawtonka,  for  its  own  domestic  supply  of  water.  It 
offered  the  water  in  the  top  twenty  feet  of  this  res- 
ervoir to  the  Service,  provided  it  would  use  it  for 
the  purpose  designated.  The  lake  has  an  area  of 
1082  acres,  and  a  capacity  of  14,000  acre-feet.  The 
dam  is  of  solid  masonry,  50  feet  high,  and  it  is  esti- 
mated that  the  top  20  feet  will  give  not  less  than 
12,000  acre-feet  for  irrigation. 

The  average  elevation  of  the  irrigable  area  is  1,100 
feet  above  sea  level,  and  the  length  of  irrigation  sea- 
son would  be  from  April  1  to  October  31 — 214  days. 

The  average  rainfall  in  thirty  years  has  been  31 
inches ;  at  Lake  Lawtonka,  in  1914,  28  inches.  The 

271 


272       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

temperature  ranges  from  10  degrees  to  110  degrees 
Fahr.,  and  the  climate  is  similar  to  that  found  in  the 
less  arid  portions  of  the  south-west. 

The  relatively  heavy  rainfall  would  be  ample  for 
the  production  of  crops  were  it  well  distributed 
through  the  crop  season.  The  need  of  irrigation 
arises  from  the  fact  that  severe  droughts  occur  fre- 
quently during  the  early  summer.  Occasionally, 
there  is  a  year  or  several  years  in  succession  when 
there  is  an  ample  supply  of  rain  throughout  the 
growing  season  and  then  irrigation  is  unnecessary 
and  the  farmers  get  out  of  the  habit  of  applying 
water,  ditches  are  not  kept  cleaned  and  the  struc- 
tures fall  into  decay.  Then  comes  an  exceedingly 
dry  year  and,  before  the  farmers  can  rally  to  get  the 
irrigation  system  into  working  order,  the  plants  have 
wilted  and  the  water  when  applied  is  of  little  use. 
Because  of  this  irregularity  in  the  seasons  and  be- 
cause the  farmers  are  not  compelled — as  in  the  arid 
region — to  practise  irrigation  systematically,  prac- 
tically all  of  the  irrigation  ditches  formerly  utilized 
in  Oklahoma  and  adjacent  semi-arid  areas,  have  been 
abandoned. 

The  knowledge  of  this  fact  and  the  further  doubt 
as  to  whether  the  relatively  heavy  soil  can  be  suc- 
cessfully irrigated,  has  caused  the  land  owners  in- 
terested to  be  somewhat  slow  in  mortgaging  their 
lands  to  build  a  water  supply  system  which  may  not 
be  utilized.  In  other  words,  while  they  are  enthusi- 
astic about  irrigation  in  general  and  the  increase  in 
prosperity  which  would  ensue,  yet  when  the  proposi- 
tion is  definitely  presented  to  each  man  of  his  in- 
dividually guaranteeing  its  success,  each  man  holds 


•      I 

i'U'.i...;  y   -3 


THE  LAWTON  PROJECT,  OKLAHOMA    273 

back  from  signing  up  in  compliance  with  the  require- 
ments of  law  and  of  the  executive  department. 

A  distinctive  feature  of  the  project  is  that  all  the 
lands  are  privately  owned,  hence  it  was  made  clear 
to  those  interested  that  the  work  could  be  under- 
taken only  upon  the  conditions  laid  down  by  the 
Secretary  when  he  appropriated  $100,000  for  the 
project.  These  included  the  formation  of  some  kind 
of  Water  Users'  Association,  or  Irrigation  District, 
the  members  of  which  should  pledge  themselves  to 
purchase  and  use  the  water  for  1,900  acres,  which 
they  would  divide  into  small  farms,  of  size  approved 
by  the  Service,  preferably,  40  acres,  and  dispose  of 
all  holdings  above  that  amount  at  reasonable  prices 
to  farmers  who  would  undertake  to  settle  upon  the 
lands  and  work  them,  and  also  that  some  public  land 
was  to  be  included. 

The  preliminary  surveys  revealed  a  suitable  site 
for  the  diversion  dam  on  Medicine  Bluff  Creek,  about 
four  and  a  half  miles  below  Lake  Lawtonka,  and  the 
final  canal  location  decided  upon  was  surveyed  from 
this  point  across  the  Fort  Sill  Military  Reservation. 
This  reservation  comprises  a  large  body  of  land 
stretching  east  and  west  and  with  its  southern 
boundary  about  two  miles  north  of  Lawton.  The 
proposed  plan  of  reaching  the  irrigable  lands  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  city  contemplated  the  diversion  at 
some  point  in  Medicine  Bluff  Creek  below  Lake  Law- 
tonka  of  the  released  storage  supply  and  whatever 
unregulated  run-off  there  might  be.  This  diverted 
water  was  then  to  be  carried  across  the  artillery 
range  of  the  reservation  in  an  open  canal,  for  about 
six  miles,  reaching  the  irrigable  land  at  the  southern 


274       EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

boundary  of  the  reserve.  None  of  the  land  in  the 
reserve  is  available  for  irrigation.  North-west  of 
Lawton  all  of  the  public  land  was  taken  up  long  ago. 
Immediately  to  the  north  and  east,  however,  the  farm 
and  pasture  lands  of  the  Fort  Sill  Indian  School  are 
situated,  and  in  order  to  meet  the  Secretary's  re- 
quirement for  the  inclusion  of  public  land,  arrange- 
ments were  duly  made  with  the  Indian  Department 
to  add  these  600  acres  to  the  private  lands  available. 

It  being  essential  to  economic  construction  and 
operation  that  the  entire  body  of  irrigable  land  be 
located  compactly,  a  tract  was  chosen  next  to  the 
Indian  lands,  but,  unfortunately,  the  Water  Users' 
Association  has  been  able  to  secure  subscriptions  to 
cover  only  1,800  acres,  and  the  tracts  subscribed 
were  not  in  a  compact  body.  Accordingly  it  was  de- 
termined to  form  an  Irrigation  District  under  the 
laws  of  the  State  of  Oklahoma,  and  enter  into  a  con- 
tract for  the  construction  of  irrigation  works  to 
serve  approximately  2,500  acres  of  private  lands. 

The  land  to  be  irrigated  is  somewhat  rolling  and 
the  soil  is  a  clay  loam.  Products  already  growing 
on  private  lands  are  garden-truck,  melons,  tomatoes, 
cabbages,  onions,  sweet-potatoes,  berries,  various 
fruits,  forage  crops  and  cotton.  There  are  ready 
markets  at  fair  prices  locally  and  at  Oklahoma  City, 
Okla. ;  Kansas  City  and  St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  Galveston, 
Texas;  and  New  Orleans,  La.  The  population  of 
Lawton  in  January,  1915,  was  estimated  at  8,000.  It 
is  located  on  both  the  St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco 
and  the  Chicago,  Eock  Island  and  Pacific  Eailways. 

The  present  Project  Manager  is  H.  M.  Schilling, 
with  office  at  Lawton,  Oklahoma. 


CHAPTER  XXV 


;WHEKE   ROLLS    THE    OREGON"."      THE    UMATILLA 


As  early  as  1896,  Mr.  A.  P.  Davis  (now  Director  of 
the  United  States  Eeclamation  Service),  established 
a  gauging  station  on  the  Umatilla  Eiver,  at  Gibbon, 
Oregon.  Data  were  being  accumulated  for  the  use 
of  the  new  Service — that  designed  for  reclaiming, 
by  irrigation,  the  lands  of  the  arid  or  semi-arid  West. 

In  1905  the  Oregon  legislature,  awake  to  the  great 
advantages  of  practical  irrigation,  passed  an  irriga- 
tion act,  which  provided,  among  other  good  things, 
for  the  appointment  of  a  State  Engineer,  and  for  co- 
operation with  the  United  States  in  hydrographic 
and  topographic  surveys  and  the  construction  of 
works  for  the  development  and  use  of  the  waters  of 
the  State. 

During  the  summer  of  1905  investigations  dis- 
closed the  likelihood  of  a  successful  project  being 
established  east  of  the  Umatilla  Eiver.  A  basin  of- 
fering fair  storage  possibilities  was  found  in  Cold 
Springs  Canyon,  and  below  this  site  there  were  some 
20,000  acres  of  irrigable  land  at  an  elevation  of  from 
350  to  550  feet  above  sea  level. 

The  Umatilla  Eiver  is  a  tributary  of  the  Columbia 
and  drains  an  area  of  about  2,000  square  miles.  It 
has  a  mean  annual  run-off  of  over  500,000  acre-feet,  a 
large  part  of  which  is  diverted  by  numerous  canals 
and  ditches  and  used  for  irrigation  by  private  en- 

275 


276        EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

terprise.  The  main  run-off  is  in  the  winter  and 
spring  and  no  efforts  had  been  made  to  provide 
storage  to  supply  the  deficiency  of  flow  invariably 
experienced  in  the  growing  season  of  summer. 

There  was  no  suitable  site  found  on  the  river  it- 
self for  a  storage  dam,  and  the  site  in  Cold  Springs 
Canyon  was  the  only  feasible  one  that  was  discov- 
ered, hence  plans  were  prepared,  and  in  1906  the 
work  of  actual  construction  commenced.  They  pro- 
vided for  a  feed  canal,  which  necessitated  a  diver- 
sion dam  on  the  Umatilla  Eiver,  two  miles  above 
Echo.  The  canal,  24%  miles  in  length,  is  to  convey 
the  water  to  the  reservoir  made  by  the  storage  dam 
at  Cold  Springs  Canyon,  from  whence  it  is  conveyed 
by  the  distributing  system  to  the  lands  to  be  irri- 
gated, in  all  about  25,000  acres,  half  of  which  were 
privately  owned. 

The  diversion  dam  in  the  Umatilla  Eiver  is  pro- 
vided with  a  concrete  overflow  weir  400  feet  long 
and  three  feet  high,  founded  on  a  timber  crib  three 
feet  deep  and  twenty-three  feet  wide,  filled  with  rock, 
forming  an  apron  upon  which  the  overflow  falls. 
Sheet  piling  is  driven  at  the  lower  and  upper  edges 
of  the  crib.  There  are  eight  cast-iron  headgates, 
with  sills  two  feet  below  the  crest  of  the  weir.  They 
are  separated  by  reinforced  concrete  piers,  and  these 
piers  are  connected  by  curtain  walls  above  the  gates, 
so  that  no  water  can  flow  over  the  gates.  An  in- 
genious method  of  sluicing  the  canal  near  the  head- 
gates  is  also  provided. 

The  feed  canal  leading  from  the  diversion  dam 
to  the  reservoir  has  a  maximum  capacity  of  350  sec- 
ond-feet. Much  of  it  is  lined  with  concrete  for 


"WHEBE  BOLLS  THE  OKEGON"      277 

safety  and  for  economy  of  water.  This  lining  is 
mainly  four  inches  thick,  a  small  part,  however,  be- 
ing only  two  inches. 

Ahout  half  a  mile  before  the  feed  canal  reaches  the 
reservoir,  a  by-pass  chute  is  provided,  by  which 
water  can  be  dropped  down  the  hill  into  the  distribu- 
tion canal  system  about  60  feet  lower.  This  is  a 
concrete  chute  *of  trapezoidal  section  with  a  stilling 
basin  at  the  bottom. 

At  the  discharge  of  the  canal  into  the  reservoir  a 
large  concrete  drop  is  built  to  prevent  back-cutting 
along  the  canal.  A  short  distance  above  its  outlet, 
the  canal  is  provided  with  a  set  of  gates  in  the  form 
of  flap  valves  which  remain  open  as  long  as  the  water 
is  flowing  towards  the  reservoir,  but  close  when  a 
current  starts  in  the  opposite  direction.  This  pre- 
vents back-flow  when  the  reservoir  is  full,  and  the 
feed  canal  supply  is  stopped. 

The  Cold  Springs  Dam  is  located  about  six  miles 
east  of  Hermiston.  It  is  essentially  an  earth  and 
gravel  embankment,  having  an  extreme  length  of 
over  3,800  feet,  and  a  maximum  height  of  98  feet. 
The  greatest  depth  of  water  is  about  88  feet,  and 
the  depth  over  the  outlet-conduit  when  water  starts 
to  flow  over  the  spillway  crest  is  61%  feet.  The  dam 
is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  loam  and  coarse  sand 
and  gravel,  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  about  one- 
third  loam  to  two-thirds  sand  and  gravel.  Great 
care  was  taken  to  obtain  a  thorough  and  compact 
mixture. 

The  outlet  conduit  is  located  on  bedrock  a  little 
south  of  the  centre  of  the  canyon,  about  seventeen 
feet  above  its  bottom.  The  outflow  is  controlled 


278        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

from  a  tower  built  in  the  reservoir  upon  bed-rock  at 
the  upper  end  of  the  conduit,  and  reached  from  a 
bridge  extending  from  the  top  of  the  dam.  In  this 
tower  are  installed  two  cast-iron  sluice-gates,  each 
four  feet  square,  placed  in  series,  one  at  the  outside 
of  the  gate-tower  and  the  other  at  the  inside,  the 
former  being  an  emergency  gate,  and  the  latter  used 
in  ordinary  service. 

The  outlet  conduit  is  built  of  reinforced  concrete 
and  is  of  horseshoe  cross-section,  six  feet  wide  and 
five  feet  high,  with  cut-off  collars  at  intervals  of 
thirty  feet.  It  discharges  into  a  rock-cut  canal  which 
has  a  capacity  of  225  cubic  feet  per  second. 

A  spillway  is  provided  on  the  right  bank  just  above 
the  dam.  Its  concrete  overflow  lip  is  330  feet  in 
length  and  is  eight  feet  lower  than  the  crest  of  the 
dam.  After  spilling  over  the  crest  the  water  glides 
down  a  concrete  slope  into  a  concrete-lined  channel 
at  right  angles  to  the  dam,  becoming  larger  and 
deeper  until  it  discharges  into  the  canyon  below  the 
dam.  With  a  head  of  three  feet,  this  spillway  will 
discharge  about  5,900  second-feet,  leaving  five  feet 
freeboard  on  the  dam ;  this  with  the  storage  of  three 
feet  on  the  surface  of  the  reservoir  will  take  care 
of  the  largest  flood  known  with  a  good  margin  to 
spare. 

The  water-distribution  system  of  the  Umatilla 
Project  is  extremely  complicated  on  account  of  the 
character  of  the  topography  and  sandy  soil.  Many 
pressure-pipes  were  necessary  to  reach  isolated 
tracts  or  to  cross  depressions,  and  the  open  sandy 
soil  required  the  lining  of  many  canals  and  laterals 
to  avoid  excessive  seepage  losses.  At  first  some 


" WHERE  EOLLS  THE  OREGON"       279 

doubt  existed  as  to  the  kind  of  pipe  to  be  used. 
"Wood  pipe  was  admitted  to  be  the  cheapest  in  first 
cost,  but  since  it  would  be  in  use  only  about  seven 
months  and  dry  for  the  remaining  five  months  of 
each  year,  its  life  would  be  short.  Steel  pipe  was 
expensive  in  first  cost,  and  there  was  also  some 
doubt  as  to  its  length  of  life  in  the  peculiar  soil  of 
these  lands.  Hence  it  was  decided  to  experiment 
with  concrete  pipe,  which  after  many  tests  and  sev- 
eral years  of  active  use  has  proven  very  successful. 
The  methods  of  manufacture  and  construction  fol- 
lowed are  of  value  wherever  such  work  is  required. 
Many  drops  and  chutes  were  also  necessary  to  de- 
liver water  safely  from  higher  to  lower  levels. 

The  losses  of  water  from  canals  and  laterals  and 
the  large  quantity  escaping  into  the  subsoil  on  the 
farms  brought  up  the  ground  water-table  on  the 
lower  lands ;  soon  bogs  and  ponds  began  to  appear 
and  gradually  to  enlarge.  This  condition  was  ag- 
gravated by  the  absence  of  natural  drainage  lines 
and  the  existence  of  isolated  depressions  which  are 
so  characteristic  of  a  topography  formed  by  wind. 
In  fact,  but  little  of  the  lost  water  was  able  to  reach 
the  river  except  through  the  subsoil.  To  correct  the 
seepage  and  prevent  its  spread,  about  ten  miles  of 
open  drainage  channels  were  excavated.  The  drain- 
age thus  secured  into  the  Umatilla  River  exceeds  60 
cubic  feet  per  second  in  the  summer,  and  forms  the 
major  portion  of  the  water-supply  available  for  di- 
version to  irrigate  the  west  extension  of  the  project, 
which  will  later  be  discussed  and  described. 

The  area  reached  by  the  main  canals  consists  of 
about  25,000  acres,  lying  in  a  compact  body,  which 


280        RECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

may  be  stated  as  the  entire  irrigable  area  south  of 
the  Columbia  and  east  of  the  Umatilla  rivers  lying 
north  of  the  feed  canal  and  west  of  Cold  Springs 
Reservoir,  with  the  exception  of  about  1,200  acres 
near  Umatilla.  About  half  of  this  land  was  pat- 
ented to  private  owners  before  the  work  of  the  Serv- 
ice began;  the  other  half  was  either  public  or  en- 
tered under  the  Desert  Land  Act. 

The  distribution  system  consists  of  a  main  dis- 
tributing canal  from  the  reservoir  from  which  mi- 
nor distributaries  draw;  also  a  main  canal  which 
diverts  from  the  Umatilla  Eiver  near  the  mouth  of 
Butter  Creek,  reaches  the  irrigable  lands  in  a  dis- 
tance of  two  and  a  half  miles,  and  eight  miles  further 
completely  merges  into  the  system  from  the  reser- 
voir. The  last  named  canal  was  formerly  owned  by 
the  Maxwell  Land  and  Irrigation  Company  and  was 
acquired  by  the  United  States  by  purchase. 

The  first  water  for  irrigation  was  turned  on  the 
land  March  25, 1908,  for  the  first  unit  of  6,975  acres. 
The  second  unit,  of  4,392  acres,  was  opened  the  lat- 
ter part  of  March,  1909.  The  third  unit,  of  3,952 
acres,  was  opened  on  March  15,  1910.  On  May  1, 
1911,  the  reservoir  was  filled  for  the  first  time,  water 
passing  over  the  spillway.  In  1911  the  fourth  unit, 
of  1,976  acres,  was  opened  March  21. 

When  the  project  was  begun  the  country  was  prac- 
tically a  complete  desert.  Where  Hermiston  is  now 
located  there  were  then  only  three  or  four  buildings. 
Perhaps  half  a  dozen  residences  were  seen  over  the 
irrigable  area.  During  the  year  1908  development 
of  the  First  Unit  was  slow.  The  season  was  un- 
favourable on  account  of  severe  and  persistent 


o 


"WHEBE  BOLLS  THE  OREGON"      281 

winds,  which,  lasted  from  early  spring  until  well  into 
June  and  made  it  difficult  to  start  growth.  Again, 
the  large  area  held  by  desert  land  entrymen  and  the 
Maxwell  Land  &  Irrigation  Company  retarded  de- 
velopment. Little  improvement  was  done  on  desert 
land  entries,  and  only  a  small  portion  of  Maxwell 
land  was  sold. 

During  the  year  1909  additional  efforts  were  made 
to  improve  desert  land  entries.  Sale  of  Maxwell 
lands  were,  however,  sluggish.  There  were  a  num- 
ber of  homesteads  in  the  Second  Unit,  but  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  those  who  filed  sold  their  relin- 
quishments  without  attempting  to  improve.  No 
great  effort  was  made  to  improve  the  entries  until 
fall.  Since  then  fair  progress  has  been  made. 

Prior  to  the  passage  of  the  Beclamation  Act  the 
land  now  embraced  in  the  Umatilla  Project  had  little 
value.  As  soon  as  surveys  were  made  by  the  Becla- 
mation Service,  or  by  private  parties,  and  it  became 
evident  that  there  was  a  prospect  that  the  land 
might  be  irrigated,  land  prices  increased.  About 
1904  the  Maxwell  Land  &  Irrigation  Company  bought 
several  hundred  acres  from  the  Northern  Pacific 
Bailway  Company  for  approximately  $4.50  per  acre. 
In  1904  the  County  Assessor  appraised  raw  land  in 
the  project  at  $3.00  per  acre.  In  1906  certain  school 
land  changed  hands  for  about  $14.00  per  acre.  Af- 
ter water  was  available  some  of  this  land  sold,  unim- 
proved, for  about  $85  per  acre. 

Before  water  was  available  for  the  First  Unit  the 
Northern  Pacific  Bailway  Company  sold  about  150 
acres  of  raw  land,  located  one  mile  from  the  railroad 
station  at  Hermiston,  for  $90  per  acre.  This  land 


282       RECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

was  subsequently  resold  for  $125  per  acre.  About 
the  same  time  the  Maxwell  Land  &  Irrigation  Com- 
pany sold  raw  land  at  from  $75  to  $80  per  acre. 
Later  they  sold  raw  land  one  mile  from  the  railroad 
station  at  $175  per  acre.  During  1910  and  1911  raw 
land  four  or  five  miles  from  the  railroad  station  was 
sold  at  $200  per  acre.  In  the  Third  Unit  the  North- 
ern Pacific  Company  sold  fully  700  acres  of  unim- 
proved land  at  about  $100  per  acre.  The  foregoing 
figures  do  not  include  the  cost  of  a  water-right. 
During  the  latter  part  of  1911,  and  during  1912  few 
sales  were  made  and  prices  dropped. 

While  the  plans  of  the  main  project  were  thus  be- 
ing successfully  carried  out,  surveys  were  also  being 
made  looking  towards  the  supplying  of  water  to  some 
40,000  acres  of  land  west  of  the  Umatilla  Eiver. 
Various  plans  were  proposed,  but  the  one  most  fea- 
sible appeared  to  be  that  now  to  be  described,  capa- 
ble of  watering  30,000  acres,  at  an  estimated  cost  of 
about  $100  per  acre. 

The  plan  was  approved  in  March,  1912,  contingent 
on  satisfactory  arrangements  being  made  with  not 
less  than  95  per  cent  of  the  private  lands  involved. 
When  these  arrangements  were  perfected  construc- 
tion began,  and  the  work  is  now  largely  completed. 

This  west  extension  takes  water  from  the  Uma- 
tilla Eiver,  on  the  left  bank,  below  all  other  import- 
ant diversions,  and  is  designed  to  irrigate  lands  in 
the  Columbia  Eiver  near  Irrigon  and  westward. 
The  water-supply  consists  mainly  of  the  return  flow 
from  the  main  project  and  adjacent  irrigated  lands 
and  is  deemed  ample  for  about  10,000  acres  of  land. 
This  area  could  be  enlarged  by  several  thousand 


"WHERE  EOLLS  THE  OREGON"      283 

acres  by  the  conversion  of  a  nearby  valley  into  an- 
other reservoir.  The  diversion  dam  is  known  as  the 
Three-Mile  Falls  Diversion  Dam,  and  it  receives  its 
name  from  the  low  water-fall  there  existing  which  is 
distant  about  three  miles  from  the  Columbia  River. 

It  is  located  about  half-way  between  Hermiston 
and  Umatilla  on  the  Umatilla  River.  It  is  the  only 
dam  of  its  kind  in  the  whole  of  the  works  of  the 
Reclamation  Service,  in  that  it  is  of  multiple  arch 
design,  the  axis  being  curved  to  a  radius  of  1,200  feet. 
There  are  forty  arches  resting  against  buttresses 
which  are  twenty  feet  centre  to  centre.  The  arches 
are  one  foot  thick  at  the  crest,  and  increase  in  thick- 
ness downward  at  the  rate  of  one-half  inch  for  every 
foot  vertical.  The  outer  face  of  each  arch  is  curved 
to  a  radius  of  eighteen  feet,  and  the  inner  face  to 
a  radius  varying  from  sixteen  to  seventeen  feet,  ac- 
cording to  thickness.  The  maximum  height  of  the 
dam  above  the  river-bed  is  twenty-four  feet.  A 
back  wall  traverses  the  entire  length  of  the  dam  ex- 
cept a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet  in 
the  river  section.  The  total  length  of  the  dam  is 
nine  hundred  and  twenty  feet,  width  of  maximum 
section  thirty-four  feet. 

The  buttresses  are  of  concrete,  eighteen  inches 
thick  and  are  reinforced  with  two  parallel  vertical 
tiers  of  half  inch  steel  spaced  two  feet  apart.  The 
crest  of  the  dam  is  four  feet  wide  and  spans  the 
space  between  buttresses  as  an  arch  of  sixteen  foot 
radius,  heavily  reinforced  by  half  inch  rods  spaced 
six  inches  apart  each  way.  An  inspection  gallery 
runs  the  length  of  the  higher  part  of  the  dam  and 
greatly  stiffens  it. 


284       EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

The  headworks  of  the  canal  are  located  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river  at  the  west  abutment  of  the  dam 
and  are  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  dam. 
There  are  three  gate  openings,  each  five  feet  wide 
and  six  feet  high,  operated  in  a  12  foot  by  20 
foot  concrete  gatehouse.  Here  a  concrete  highway 
bridge  spans  the  canal.  Just  below  the  bridge  are 
ten  revolving  fish  screens,  installed  between  piers. 

The  sandy  soil  and  coarse  subsoil  of  the  lands  of 
the  west  extension,  together  with  the  experience  with 
similar  conditions  on  the  east  side  led  to  the  decision 
that  the  entire  canal  and  distribution  system,  from 
the  very  outset,  should  consist  of  concrete  channels. 
The  lining  of  canal  and  the  manufacture  and  instal- 
lation of  concrete  pipes  therefore  became  even  more 
important  than  on  the  eastern  division. 

The  main  supply  of  the  water,  as  I  have  shown, 
comes  from  the  Umatilla  Eiver,  whose  headwaters 
are  in  the  Blue  Mountains,  which  extend  north  and 
south,  to  the  eastward,  and  stretch  into  southern 
Washington.  When  the  snowfall  here  is  heavy  the 
water  flow  is  correspondingly  increased,  though 
other  conditions  also  have  to  be  considered.  When 
the  snowfall  is  not  well  packed,  or  there  is  an  early 
spring  the  run-off  is  exceedingly  rapid,  and  where, 
combined  with  these  two  factors,  there  is  a  limited 
fall  a  short  water  flow  may  be  anticipated. 

The  average  elevation  of  the  irrigable  lands  on  the 
project  is  four  hundred  feet  above  sea  level.  The 
average  annual  rainfall  is  8.3  inches,  though  in  1914 
only  6.6  inches  fell.  The  range  of  temperature  is 
great,  extending  from  28  degrees  Fahr.  below  zero, 


"WHEBE  EOLLS  THE  OBEGON"      285 

to  115  degrees  Fahr. ;  though  it  is  seldom  the  ther- 
mometer goes  below  zero. 

While  to  those  who  do  not  like  the  strongly 
marked  differences  of  temperature  between  the  four 
seasons  this  climate  will  not  be  attractive,  there  are 
those  to  whom  it  is  stimulating,  invigorating  and 
almost  perpetually  pleasing.  Now  and  again  there 
are  severe  winds,  which  generally  blow  during  the 
months  of  March  and  April.  The  sharp  tang  of  win- 
ter is  free  from  the  penetrating  cold  of  a  more  humid 
atmosphere,  as  there  is  rarely  any  wind  in  winter 
and  no  place  can  be  more  healthful  and  life-giving. 

The  principal  crop  is  alfalfa,  the  maximum  yield 
reported  being  about  eight  tons  to  the  acre.  Much 
of  this  is  baled  and  shipped,  and  some  is  fed.  There 
is  an  increasing  number  of  dairy  stock  on  the  proj- 
ect and  the  creamery  at  Hermiston  is  ready  to  pur- 
chase at  fair  prices  all  the  butter-fat  it  can  obtain. 

Hogs  and  poultry  do  well,  as  many  as  three  thou- 
sand of  the  former  being  marketed  in  one  year. 

Most  of  the  vegetables  and  fruits  are  successfully 
grown,  and  apples,  peaches  and  apricots  of  delicious 
flavour  thrive  abundantly,  although  now  and  again 
the  frosts  injure  the  early  peaches.  Strawberries 
and  all  bush  berries  flourish. 

Grains  for  forage  and  milling  and  especially  ac- 
climatized corn  have  made  a  most  gratifying  show- 
ing. Four  first  prizes  were  won  one  year  at  the 
State  Corn  Show.  Watermelons  and  canteloupes 
were  recently  introduced  and  they  are  proving  to  be 
one  of  the  most  profitable  of  crops,  the  latter  vying 
with  the  famous  Bocky  Fords,  of  Colorado,  in  juici- 


286        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

ness  and  flavour.  Bees  also  do  well  and  produce 
a  very  fine  grade  of  honey  in  fairly  large  quanti- 
ties. 

The  Umatilla  Project  has  passed  through  nine 
years  of  experience  that  have  given  it  a  firm  footing, 
have  removed  obstacles,  and  corrected  legal  impedi- 
ments that  contributed  to  its  adversities.  Its  settle- 
ment began  during  the  Bacchanalian  orgies  of  high 
prices  for  land  and  great  profits  from  fruit  that 
swept  the  great  Northwest  several  years  ago.  The 
first  people  caught  by  the  alluring  offers  came 
largely  from  the  cities,  without  farming  experience 
and  with  little  means.  They  were  doctors,  lawyers, 
clerks,  mechanics,  brokers,  and  the  ne  'er-do-wells. 
They  knew  styles,  had  soft  hands  and  flabby  muscles, 
were  full  of  hope,  knew  nothing  much  of  physical 
hardships,  and  were  ambitious  without  real  power. 
Most  of  them,  however,  as  times  have  tried  them, 
have  proven  themselves  honest  and  courageous. 

But  the  game  was  hard  for  them.  They  bought 
land  at  fabulous  prices,  paid  an  instalment  and 
started  the  battle  against  interest  and  reduction  of 
principal.  They  agreed  to  pay  off  the  government 
water-right,  too,  in  ten  years.  They  bargained  to 
improve  the  land,  to  make  a  living,  to  pay  off  the 
water-charges  and  to  pay  for  the  land  while  they 
grew  an  orchard  on  ten  acres  that  requires  seven  to 
ten  years  to  bring  to  a  profit-producing  stage.  This 
condenses  into  a  short  paragraph  the  stern,  hard, 
and  losing  battle  many  of  the  settlers  fought  for  four 
or  five  years.  At  the  end  of  this  period  there  were 
no  soft  hands  or  flabby  muscles.  Some  of  the  peo- 
ple left  financially  broke  and  mentally  defeated. 


"WHEBE  EOLLS  THE  OREGON"      287 

Others  capitalized  their  experiences  and  tackled  the 
game  again  with  renewed  energy  and  new  determi- 
nation. 

They  planted  alfalfa  and  borrowed  money  to  buy 
cows  and  hogs.  They  planted  gardens,  raised  poul- 
try, and  honey,  and  did  other  things  that  brought 
quick  returns.  One  doctor,  an  excellent  citizen, 
worked  on  the  roads  for  money  to  buy  groceries, 
like  many  others.  But  it  turned  the  tide.  The  Gov- 
ernment extended  the  water  payments  to  twenty 
years  and  gave  other  relief.  In  the  meantime  the 
price  of  raw  land  tumbled  and  new  people  began 
to  buy  and  develop  places  that  supplied  work  for 
many  deserving  settlers.  For  the  last  four  years 
alfalfa  areas  have  increased,  more  and  better  cattle 
have  added  fertility  and  dollars,  and  the  various 
features  of  diversified  and  intensified  farming  have 
been  added,  to  the  great  benefit  of  the  farmers. 

The  project  now  has  several  hundred  experienced 
farmers,  the  values  of  unimproved  lands  are  low, 
water  payments  easy,  there  is  no  long  wait  for  a 
fruit  crop,  but  quick  returns  and  a  living  after  one 
year.  Had  these  conditions  prevailed  nine  years 
ago  the  Umatilla  Project  today  would  have  been  a 
garden  from  corner  to  corner.  This  it  is  sure  to 
become  ere  long  as  hope  has  given  way  to  assurance 
and  practically  every  farmer  now  knows  that  his 
certain  prosperity  is  close  at  hand. 

Another  step  forward  was  taken  when,  in  response 
to  earnest  solicitations  from  the  settlers,  the  State 
established  the  Umatilla  Experiment  Station.  A 
practical,  as  well  as  scientifically  educated,  farmer  is 
in  charge,  and  he  is  ready  at  all  times  to  aid  settlers. 


288       RECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

The  Service  also  lias  sent  some  of  its  expert  field 
men  to  help  them  solve  their  problems. 

A  fine  illustration  of  the  broadly  helpful  princi- 
ples that  control  the  direction  of  the  work  of  the  Rec- 
lamation Service  is  found  in  the  supplying  of  water, 
for  power  purposes,  to  Joseph  Cunha,  of  Echo.  The 
main  canal  ran  near  enough  to  suggest  to  him  the 
possibility  of  securing  a  more  steady  and  continu- 
ous flow  of  water,  and  permit  the  abandonment  of 
his  individual  parallel  ditch.  Negotiations  were  en- 
tered into,  offers  and  plans  made,  which  were  finally 
accepted  by  Mr.  Cunha,  and  now  the  Echo  Flour  Mill 
is  operated  by  this  water,  and  the  project  is  so  much 
to  the  good  through  a  beneficial  arrangement  with 
one  of  Oregon's  citizens. 

The  leading  town  on  the  project  is  Hermiston,  with 
a  population  of  650.  It  is  a  growing  and  fairly 
prosperous  frontier  town,  with  all  that  goes  to  make 
life  in  a  farming  community  comfortable  and  pleas- 
ing. The  outside  population  on  the  project  is  about 
1000. 

The  farm  unit  of  the  public  lands  is  twenty  to 
forty  acres,  but  there  are  only  twenty  units  not 
filed  upon.  The  remainder  of  the  lands  are  in  pri- 
vate ownership.  The  construction  charge  is  $70  an 
acre,  on  the  older  portion  of  the  project  and  $92  an 
acre  for  the  west  extension,  payable  in  twenty  years 
without  interest.  The  annual  maintenance  and  op- 
eration charges  are  small,  but  varying  in  accordance 
with  amount  of  water  used. 

The  Project  Manager  is  Herbert  D.  Newell,  with 
office  at  Hermiston,  Oregon. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

AMONG   TULE    MAESHES   AND   LAKES. 
THE    KLAMATH    PBOJECT,    OEEGON-CALIFOENIA 

On  the  boundary  line  between  Oregon  and  Cali- 
fornia are  vast  tule  marshes  thousands  of  acres  in 
extent,  in  which  several  open  lakes  of  large  area  are 
found.  These  are  connected  with  each  other  by  a 
network  of  creeks  and  rivers.  Surrounding  and  ad- 
jacent to  these  tule  lands,  which  are  merely  shallow 
lakes,  are  other  thousands  of  acres  of  slightly  higher 
land  above  the  water  level  and  which,  from  their  fer- 
tile character,  attracted  the  attention  of  the  early  set- 
tlers who  came  to  this  portion  of  Oregon  in  the  early 
'fifties.  The  region  is  now  known  as  the  Klamath 
country. 

The  abundant  water  supply  coming  from  the  high 
mountains,  the  level  character  of  much  of  the  land, 
the  fertile  soil  resulting  from  the  decay  of  the  vol- 
canic rocks,  all  attracted  the  attention  of  the  engi- 
neers. The  tule  marshes  especially  aroused  interest 
because  of  the  fact  that  swampy  lands  similar  in 
appearance  had  been  successfully  reclaimed  in  the 
Sacramento  Valley;  it  was  early  assumed  that  these 
tule  covered  swamps,  if  drained,  must  necessarily  be 
extremely  fertile.  Here,  however,  has  been  involved 
one  of  those  popular  fallacies  which,  though  often 
exposed,  is  hard  to  destroy :  because  certain  marshes 
have  been  reclaimed  and  have  produced  wonderful 
crops,  therefore,  all  other  marshes  should  be  re- 

289 


290        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

claimed !  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  now  known  that 
not  all  of  the  swampy  and  overflowed  lands  possess 
a  soil  such  that  when  drained,  it  can  be  economically 
subdued.  Such  has  proved  to  be  the  case  with  some 
of  the  Klamath  lands,  especially  those  of  the  lower 
lake.  On  the  other  hand,  the  soil  under  the  Tule 
Lake,  in  many  ways  similar  in  appearance,  is  cap- 
able of  producing  large  crops. 

The  area  embraced  in  the  Klamath  Project  is  a 
large  and  somewhat  varied  tract  of  country  located 
about  midway  between  San  Francisco,  Calif.,  and 
Portland,  Oregon,  and  150  miles  east  from  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean.  It  is  generally  known  as  the  Klamath 
Basin,  receiving  its  name  from  a  tribe  of  Indians 
that  still  inhabit  some  portions  of  it.  It  is  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Cascade  Eange,  and  has  an  ele- 
vation of  from  4,000  to  4,200  feet  above  the  sea. 
Two  large  valleys,  the  Klamath  and  Lost  Eiver,  con- 
stitute the  greater  part  of  its  area,  amounting  in  the 
aggregate  to  approximately  one-third  of  a  million 
acres,  not  all  of  which,  however,  is  reclaimable. 
The  portion  to  which  the  Service  directed  its  atten- 
tion is  a  square,  the  sides  of  which  are  about  50  miles 
long,  and  located  approximately  at  the  corner  com- 
mon to  Modoc  and  <Siskiyou  Counties,  California, 
and  the  northerly  boundary  of  Klamath  County, 
Oregon. 

At  the  outset  it  was  decided  to  employ  Upper  Kla- 
math and  Clear  Lakes  as  the  two  reservoirs  of  the 
project,  with  Horse  Fly  Lake  as  an  auxiliary  in  case 
it  should  be  needed.  Upper  Klamath  Lake  is  a  nat- 
ural reservoir  with  an  area  of  60,000  acres  and  a 
storage  capacity  of  140,000  acre-feet,  without  the 


AMONG  TULE  MAESHES  AND  LAKES  291 

construction  of  regulating  works.  It  receives  the 
drainage  from  a  watershed  area  of  100  square  miles 
and  its  principal  tributaries  are  the  Sprague,  Will- 
iamson and  Wood  Rivers,  these  rivers  draining  the 
regions  easterly  and  northerly  from  the  lake.  Will- 
iamson and  Wood  Eivers  are  fed  by  some  very  large 
springs,  the  water  supply  probably  coming  in  large 
part  from  the  Crater  Lake  region.  The  Upper  Kla- 
math  Lake  acts  as  an  immense  regulating  basin  and 
discharges  into  Link  or  Klamath  Eiver  over  a  rim- 
rock,  serving  as  a  natural  weir,  the  discharge  vary- 
ing between  1,000  and  10,000  second-feet,  the  mean 
discharge  being  3,400  second-feet. 

Clear  Lake  receives  the  drainage  from  a  water- 
shed area  of  approximately  600  square  miles,  the 
principal  feeder  being  Willow  Creek,  which  drains  a 
considerable  area  of  mountainous  country  west  of 
Goose  Lake.  The  area  of  the  lake  originally  was 
about  10,000  acres  with  approximately  5,000  addi- 
tional acres  of  marginal  swamp  lands.  A  dam  33 
feet  high  makes  possible  a  storage  of  462,000  acre- 
feet,  the  reservoir  thus  formed  covering  an  area  of 
approximately  25,000  acres.  The  discharge  of  Wil- 
low Creek  varies  from  2  second-feet  to  6,000  second- 
feet,  the  heaviest  run-off  occurring  in  the  months  of 
March  and  April. 

Horse  Fly  Eeservoir  is  located  on  Miller  Creek,  a 
tributary  of  Lost  Eiver  at  an  elevation  of  approxi- 
mately 4,800  feet  and  has  a  drainage  area  above  it 
roughly  estimated  at  200  square  miles.  The  reser- 
voir basin  is  flat  and  swampy  with  an  estimated  val- 
ley area  of  3,500  acres,  a  large  proportion  of  the  land 
being  public.  The  creek,  with  a  discharge  varying 


292       RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

from  2  second-feet  to  6,000  second-feet,  flows  through 
a  narrow  canyon  of  basaltic  rock  at  the  dam  site; 
and  a  dam  50  feet  high  would  impound  approxi- 
mately 123,000  acre-feet.  This  site  is  of  substantial 
importance. 

In  addition  to  the  lake  areas  mentioned  above  as 
serving  for  storage  reservoirs  there  are  two  others, 
Lower  Klamath,  and  Tule,  within  the  project  limits, 
for  which  reclamation  by  drainage  was  planned.  Of 
this,  more  will  be  said  later.  Lower  Klamath  cov- 
ers an  area  of  29,400  acres,  or  including  the  marginal 
swamps,  an  area  of  88,300  acres;  while  Tule  Lake 
covers  96,000  acres  of  which  it  was  hoped  ultimately 
to  reclaim  35,000  acres. 

The  climate  in  the  Klamath  Basin  is  mild,  with  the 
summers  warm  and  dry,  but  not  excessively  hot. 
Snow  falls  during  the  winter,  but  extreme  low  tem- 
peratures are  rare.  The  rainfall  is  light  averaging 
from  10  to  12  inches ;  the  land  therefore  requires  ir- 
rigation, and  without  it,  few  crops  can  be  raised 
with  certainty.  The  cool  climate  permits  the  growth 
of  grain,  alfalfa  and  the  hardier  vegetables,  but 
limits  the  cultivating  of  the  more  delicate  fruits  and 
vegetables. 

The  preliminary  reconnaissances  of  the  engineers 
seemed  to  confirm  the  optimistic  prognostications 
of  the  settlers.  Here  were  thousands  of  acres  of 
good  land,  millions  of  gallons  of  unused  water,  thou- 
sands of  acres  of  swarnpy  land  covered  with  tules. 
Elsewhere  tule-marsh  land  had  been  drained  and  re- 
claimed and  found  to  be  fabulously  rich  for  agricul- 
tural purposes ;  why  should  it  not  be  so  here  ?  True, 
there  was  considerable  alkali,  both  black  and  white, 


AMONG  TULE  MARSHES  AND  LAKES  293 

which  had  come  to  the  surface  where  careless  or 
over-irrigation  had  been  practised,  but  alkali  else- 
where had  been  leached  out,  hence  why  not  here  ? 

There  were  already  four  or  five  private  canal  sys- 
tems, irrigating  in  the  aggregate  a  considerable 
area,  and  capable  of  covering  much  more  land,  prop- 
erly handled,  and  the  soil  experts  sent  out  by  the 
government  wrote  favourably  of  the  possibilities  of 
the  soil,  hence  it  was  an  enthusiastic  and  optimistic 
audience  of  farmers  that  met  the  officials  of  the  Rec- 
lamation Service  in  Klamath  Falls  in  November, 
1904. 

One  result  of  this  meeting  was  that  numerous  peti- 
tions from  farmers  and  others  (one  with  nearly  300 
signatures  of  ranchers,  merchants,  professional 
men,  county  officials,  etc.,  of  Klamath  Falls,  Merrill, 
Bonanza,  and  the  adjacent  valleys),  were  received 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  urging  that  the 
Service  undertake  the  work. 

There  were  several  seemingly  unsurmountable 
difficulties  to  be  overcome  ere  this  could  be  done. 
These  were  the  vested  and  conflicting  water  rights 
that  had  already  been  obtained  under  state  laws  to 
be  adjudicated.  Many  settlers  owned  riparian 
rights  on  Lower  Klamath  and  Tule  Lakes;  these 
must  be  surrendered  or  future  trouble  was  sure  to 
arise.  The  states  of  Oregon  and  California  must 
cede  the  ownership  of  Lower  Klamath  and  Tule 
Lakes  to  the  United  States  Government  and  enact 
laws  which  would  permit  the  lowering  or  raising  of 
their  waters,  and,  finally,  the  United  States  Con- 
gress must  give  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior 
power  to  destroy  the  navigability  of  these  waters. 


294       RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

Such  was  the  enthusiasm  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
work  by  newspapers,  and  state  and  federal  officials 
that  in  a  few  months  all  these  difficulties  were,  in  the 
main,  overcome. 

Now  everything  seemed  clear  for  going  ahead. 
The  estimated  extent  of  the  project,  roughly  classi- 
fied into  Upper  Valleys  with  48,356  acres,  Klamath 
Basin,  140,797  acres,  *Tule  Lake  Bed,  47,248  acres, 
was  a  total  of  236,401  acres.  Here  was  where  a 
serious  mistake  was  made.  Too  many  acres  were 
included  in  the  possible  reclaimable  area,  and  this 
naturally  lowered  the  estimate  of  the  average  cost 
of  construction  per  acre.  The  farmers,  however,  did 
not  understand,  or  if  they  did,  they  wilfully  ignored 
any  possibility  of  future  revision  of  these  figures. 

Everything  appearing  to  be  favourable,  the  project 
was  duly  recommended,  and  on  May  15,  1905,  the 
Secretary  approved  of  it,  allotting  $4,400,000  for  its 
completion,  one  million  dollars  of  which  was  immedi- 
ately available. 

One  of  the  earliest  tasks  that  met  the  Service  was 
the  purchase  of  existing  works  and  canals,  and  the 
reconciling  of  conflicting  interests.  To  merely  re- 
count the  efforts  expended  in  these  matters  would 
occupy  many  pages.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  through 
litigations,  compromise,  conferences,  and  purchase 
the  main  rights  ultimately  became  vested  in  the 
Government. 

In  1906  various  surveys  were  made,  one  of  which 
was  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  amount  of 
fall  available  for  power  purposes  on  the  Klamath 
River  below  Keno,  and  ultimately  a  canal  was  built 
on  the  west  bank  of  the  Klamath  River,  diverting 


AMONG  TULE  MARSHES  AND  LAKES  295 

water  from  the  river  1,200  feet  from  its  outlet  from 
Upper  Klamath  Lake,  with  the  intention  of  using  it 
for  power  purposes.  As  yet,  however,  no  plant  has 
been  installed,  as  all  irrigation  at  present  is  by  grav- 
ity flow.  A  power  plant  will  be  put  in  later,  without 
question. 

It  is  well,  before  the  irrigation  plan  is  presented, 
to  secure  a  fairly  clear  idea  of  the  complicated  sys- 
tem of  lakes  and  rivers  of  this  region  and  their 
curious  relations  to  each  other.  Upper  Klamath 
Lake  is  a  large  body  of  fresh  water,  fed  by  mountain 
streams,  and  is  approximately  forty  miles  long  and 
six  miles  wide.  At  the  southerly  end  of  this  lake  is  a 
rock  barrier,  over  which  the  water  discharges  in 
a  series  of  rapids,  falling  about  56  feet,  thence 
through  the  marsh  of  the  lower  edge  of  Lower  Kla- 
math Lake,  thence  over  another  barrier  of  rock,  and 
then  by  rapid  descent  to  the  ocean. 

The  connection  between  the  Lower  and  Upper 
Klamath  Lakes  is  very  small,  and  the  Lower  Lake 
has  a  limited  drainage  directly  tributary  to  it  but  is 
connected  naturally  with  the  Klamath  Eiver  by  a 
narrow  slough.  During  the  season  of  high  water 
this  slough  carries  water  from  Klamath  Eiver  to  the 
lake,  and  when  the  freshets  have  passed  and  the  level 
of  the  river  declines,  the  current  of  the  slough  is  re- 
versed and  it  carries  water  from  the  lake  to  the  river. 
Thus  the  stage  of  the  lake  follows  tardily  that  of  the 
river. 

Clear  Lake  bears  a  similar  relation  to  Lost  Eiver 
and  its  upper  feeder,  Willow  Creek.  When  the  lat- 
ter was  in  freshet  it  overflowed  into  Clear  Lake, 
which  discharged  its  surplus  water  through  Lost 


296       EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

Eiver.  Lost  Eiver  follows  a  circuitous  course  and 
discharges  into  Tule  Lake,  which  has  no  visible  out- 
let, but  disposes  of  its  water  by  evaporation  and 
seepage.  It  normally  covers  an  area  of  about  90,000 
acres,  which  fluctuates  with  the  varying  discharges 
of  different  years  and  cycles  of  years. 

The  area  of  the  drainage  basin  comprises  37,000 
square  miles,  with  an  average  annual  rainfall  on  the 
irrigable  area  of  14.2  inches.  The  average  eleva- 
tion is  4,100  feet  above  sea  level,  and  the  tempera- 
ture ranges  from  -10°  to  100°  Fahr.  The  annual 
run-off  in  acre-feet,  from  1904  to  1913,  at  the 
Eiver  at  Klamath  Falls  was,  maximum,  2,530,000; 
minimum,  1,450,000;  mean,  1,770,000.  Lost  Eiver 
and  Willow  Creek  at  Clear  Lake,  maximum,  255,000 ; 
minimum,  35,000;  mean,  125,000.  Lost  Eiver  at 
Olene  and  Merrill,  maximum,  475,000;  minimum, 
15,000;  mean,  265,000.  In  1916  the  area  for  which 
the  Service  was  prepared  to  supply  water  was  47,- 
600  acres,  of  which  applications  were  signed  for 
27,254  acres.  The  irrigation  season  extends  from 
May  1  to  September  30 — 153  days. 

The  systems  of  irrigation  in  existence  when  the 
Eeclamation  Act  was  signed  included  the  so-called 
Ankeny  Ditch — the  Klamath  Falls  Irrigating  Co., 
which  had  diverted  water  from  Upper  Klamath 
Lake  for  over  twenty  years.  It  occupied  a  strategic 
position  at  the  outlet  of  the  lake  and  had  water 
rights  covering  1799  acres  of  land. 

In  1902  a  filing  was  made  on  the  Upper  Klamath 
Lake,  at  the  head  of  Link  Eiver,  for  30,000  miners' 
inches  of  water.  This  was  subsequently  enlarged 
to  150,000  miners'  inches,  which  included  the  whole 


AMONG  TULE  MAKSHES  AND  LAKES  297 

flow  of  the  Link  Eiver,  and  a  company  known  as  the 
Klamath  Canal  Company  organized.  Its  object  was 
to  irrigate  on  a  large  scale  the  land  of  the  Klamath 
and  adjoining  valleys.  This  company  also  filed  on 
the  waters  of  Miller  Creek  and  Lost  Kiver,  and  also 
secured  an  option  on  the  property  of  the  Summit 
Lake  Irrigation  Company. 

For  over  20  years  the  so-called  Adams  Canal  had 
been  supplying  water  from  the  Lower  Klamath  Lake 
to  the  pioneers  who  had  settled  in  the  vicinity  of 
Merrill,  Oregon,  to  the  extent  of  about  8,000  acres. 
This  was  the  Little  Klamath  Water  Ditch  Co.,  and 
it  consisted  of  22  miles  of  main  canal. 

Near  to  Clear  Lake  the  Jesse  D.  Carr  Land  and 
Livestock  Company  owned  15,000  acres  of  swamp 
and  meadow  land,  and  this  was  needed  for  the 
Eeservoir  site.  It  also  controlled  riparian  land 
around  the  lake  amounting  to  approximately  10,000 
acres  more,  and  owned  7,000  acres  of  irrigable  land 
along  the  north  shore  of  Tule  Lake. 

On  the  west  side  of  Link  Eiver,  Moore  Bros,  owned 
two  small  canals  starting  near  the  head  of  the  rapids. 
These  canals  were  in  the  way  of  the  Keno  Canal, 
which  was  contemplated  for  power  and  irrigation 
purposes,  so  an  amicable  arrangement  was  entered 
into  whereby  the  Moores  exchanged  their  property 
and  rights  for  205  second-feet  of  water  delivered 
from  the  Keno  Canal. 

All  the  above  rights,  canals  and  lands  were  pur- 
chased and  thus  the  Service  had  a  clear  field.  Its 
completed  plan  provides  for  the  use  of  the  Upper 
Klamath  and  Clear  Lakes  for  storage  purposes. 
The  natural  outlet  of  the  Upper  Klamath  is  the 


298        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

Link  Eiver,  and  water  for  irrigation  is  diverted  from 
its  east  side,  700  feet  from  the  lake,  into  the  main 
canal,  which  extends  9  miles  in  a  southeasterly  di- 
rection. From  Lost  Biver  water  is  diverted  to  the 
Griffith  Canal  at  the  Lost  Eiver  Dam,  10  miles  south- 
east from  Klamath  Falls,  Oregon.  This  supplies 
the  Adams  Canal. 

Clear  Lake  Dam  and  dikes  were  built  mainly  to 
withhold  the  waters  of  Lost  Kiver  from  Tule  Lake 
into  which  that  river  empties.  The  water  thus 
stored  is  released  into  Lost  Eiver  whenever  needed 
for  irrigation.  It  is  proposed  to  reclaim  about  30,- 
000  acres  of  the  bed  of  Tule  Lake  by  evaporation. 
To  assist  in  this,  the  Lost  Eiver  Diversion  Dam  and 
Canal — 8  miles  long — were  built  to  divert  the  flood 
waters  of  Lost  Eiver  into  Klamath  Eiver.  The 
present  irrigation  system  consists  of  210  miles  of 
canals  and  laterals  and  53  miles  of  open  drains. 
These  works  cover  the  total  irrigable  area  of  47,660 
acres. 

As  the  reclamation  of  the  bed  of  Tule  Lake 
progresses,  a  second  diversion  dam  will  be  built  in 
Lost  Eiver  about  15  miles  nearly  south  from  the 
first  dam.  This  will  divert  water  east  and  west  on 
the  reclaimed  area  of  the  lake  bed. 

The  principal  features  of  the  project  are  the 
Clear  Lake  Eeservoir,  Lost  Eiver  Diversion  Works, 
the  Keno  Power  Canal,  the  Main  Canal  Tunnel, 
3,300  feet  in  length,  and  the  main  canals  of  the  dis- 
tributing system. 

The  Main  Canal  heads  in  Upper  Klamath  Lake. 
The  head-works  consist  of  6  steel  gates  set  in  con- 
crete, each  5  feet  wide  and  8  feet  high,  separated  by 


AMONG  TULE  MAESHES  AND  LAKES  299 

piers  2  feet  thick,  with  grooves  for  flash  boards  so 
that  the  gates  can  be  unwatered  for  examination  or 
repair.  The  capacity  at  low  water  is  about  1,000 
cubic  feet  per  second. 

The  canal  for  about  2,700  feet  is  in  a  deep  cut, 
13%  feet  in  bottom  width,  lined  with  concrete  6 
inches  thick.  It  then  enters  the  concrete  lined  tun- 
nel, which  is  of  the  same  width,  and  rectangular  ex- 
cept for  an  arched  top.  About  9  miles  below  the 
head-works  is  a  large  lateral  known  as  the  South 
Branch  Canal. 

To  exclude  the  waters  of  Lost  Eiver  from  Tule 
Lake — the  marshes  of  which  it  is  proposed  to  re- 
claim— the  regulating  reservoir  of  Clear  Lake  was 
built,  and  the  regulated  waters  are  diverted  by  a 
dam  near  Wilson's  Bridge  into  a  channel  with  a 
capacity  of  350  cubic  feet  per  second,  and  carried 
thereby  to  Klamath  Eiver.  In  this  way  only  the 
flood  waters  of  Lost  Eiver  exceeding  the  above 
capacity  are  allowed  to  reach  Tule  Lake.  The  stor- 
age dam  at  Clear  Lake  is  a  combination  of  earth  and 
rock-fill.  It  is  33  feet  high.  It  has  a  core-wall  only 
at  the  base.  The  area  of  the  reservoir  formed  is 
about  25,000  acres,  and  has  so  far  disposed  of  all 
surplus  water  by  evaporation  and  seepage,  and  this 
supply  is  thereby  eliminated  from  Tule  Lake. 

The  Lost  Eiver  Diversion  Dam  near  Wilson's 
Bridge  is  of  unique  design.  It  was  necessary  to 
raise  the  water  nearly  to  the  elevation  of  the  flood 
plain  in  order  to  make  the  diversion  channel  feasible. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  water  must  not  be  permitted 
to  much  exceed  the  same  level  in  flood  times  lest  it 
overflow  valuable  lands  in  the  valley  above,  which 


300        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

has  a  very  flat  gradient.  It  thus  became  necessary 
to  provide  a  long  overflow  weir  with  movable  crest, 
to  afford  the  necessary  discharge  at  the  permissible 
head.  To  secure  this,  the  dam  was  designed  in  plan 
to  be  of  the  shape  of  an  elongated  horseshoe  with 
the  toe  up-stream.  This  causes  the  overflow  to  fall 
in  the  interior  of  the  horseshoe,  and  thus  to  dissi- 
pate its  surplus  energy  in  opposing  currents  and 
whirlpools  before  leaving  the  solid  concrete  struc- 
ture, which  it  leaves  very  placidly.  A  similar  length 
of  weir  across  the  valley  would  have  involved  a 
large  amount  of  excavation  to  carry  the  structure 
down  to  suitable  foundation,  besides  requiring  ex- 
pensive provisions  for  conducting  the  overflow 
harmlessly  to  the  natural  channel  below. 

The  Keno  Power  Canal  was  constructed  to  supply 
a  prior  power  right,  to  give  additional  power  and 
supply  water  for  irrigation.  The  water  is  taken 
from  the  Upper  Klamath  Lake  to  a  point  6,200  feet 
below,  just  opposite  the  town  of  Klamath  Falls, 
where  a  drop  of  50  feet  is  obtained.  A  discharge  of 
200  cubic  feet  per  second  here  disposed  of  the  prior 
right,  but  as  the  canal  has  a  capacity  of  600  cubic 
feet  there  are  great  future  power  possibilities  as 
yet  unused. 

The  power  canal  has  an  overflow  weir  to  dispose 
of  surplus  waters  incident  to  the  fluctuating  demands 
of  the  power-plant.  The  necessary  length  of  over- 
fall was  obtained  by  building  the  weir  in  a  series  of 
rectangles. 

When  it  came  to  the  work  of  reclaiming  the 
marshes — which  seemed  such  a  comparatively  simple 
matter  at  the  beginning  of  the  project, — several 


INTAKE  GATES  OP  MAIN  CANAL 
KLAMATH  PROJECT,  OREGON-CALIFORNIA 


LOST  RIVER  DAM 
KLAMATH  PROJECT,  OREGON-CALIFORNIA 


AMONG  TULE  MAESHES  AND  LAKES  301 

serious  obstacles  presented  themselves.  To  keep 
water  from  flowing  into  Lower  Klamath  Lake,  the 
embankment  of  the  railway  that  has  been  built  from 
the  main  line  of  the  Southern  Pacific  at  Weed,  Cali- 
fornia, through  Klamath  Falls,  to  Kirk,  Oregon,  was 
used  as  a  levee.  A  culvert  was  provided  through 
this  levee,  with  provision  for  controlling  the  flow  in 
either  direction.  The  river  and  lake  were  closed  to 
navigation,  and  a  small  part  of  the  northwest  area 
of  Lower  Klamath  Lake  was  diked  off  and  un- 
watered  by  pumping.  Drain  ditches  were  provided 
to  control  the  ground  water  and  crops  were  planted. 
Now  arose  the  unforeseen.  The  soil,  that  was  ex- 
pected to  be  rich  and  fertile,  was  found  to  be  intract- 
able. An  agreement  had  been  entered  into  with  the 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  to  establish  an  experimental  farm  for 
ascertaining  the  best  method  of  draining  and  subdu- 
ing the  marsh  lands,  and  determining  the  crops 
best  suited  for  their  cultivation.  It  was  found  that 
the  raw  tule  mat  was  very  tough,  and  hard  to  reduce 
quickly  into  good  tilth.  In  order  to  have  at  least  a 
small  piece  of  land  in  good  condition  for  cultivation, 
the  furrow  slice  was  removed  from  about  one  acre. 
After  this  was  done,  it  was  found  possible  to  work 
up  the  next  layer  into  a  very  good  tilth  for  a  seed 
bed. 

In  the  spring  of  1910,  after  arrangements  had 
been  made  to  bring  to  the  land  a  supply  of  fresh 
irrigation  water,  a  number  of  grain  and  grass  crops 
together  with  a  series  of  vegetable  crops,  were 
planted. 

The  major  portion  of  all  the  crops  planted  came 


302       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

up,  and  commenced  growth  in  a  fairly  satisfactory 
manner,  although  the  seedling  growth  was  slow. 
Irrigation  water  was  used  freely  in  an  effort  to  re- 
duce the  salt  content  by  leaching.  After  passing 
the  seedling  stage,  most  of  the  plants  began  to  show 
symptoms  of  distress,  manifested  by  arrested 
growth  and  yellowing.  In  general  it  seemed  that 
the  tender  crops  came  up  promptly,  but  after  having 
exhausted  the  food  supply  stored  in  the  seed,  they 
began  to  suffer  and  die,  although  temperature  and 
moisture  conditions  were  favourable  to  growth. 
The  wheat,  oats,  barley,  alsike,  clover,  alfalfa  and 
redtop  remained  alive  throughout  the  season  on  the 
diked  land,  but  none  of  these  crops  made  anything 
like  a  normal  growth. 

None  of  the  crops  in  the  foregoing  list  gave  any 
indication  of  ability  to  thrive  under  the  conditions 
of  the  experiment;  and  it  became  apparent  that 
thorough  leaching  of  the  land  would  be  a  necessary 
preliminary  to  the  production  of  any  of  the  ordinary 
crop  plants. 

When  the  drainage  of  the  experimental  tract  was 
first  undertaken,  a  large  number  of  curbed  open 
wells  were  dug  for  the  purpose  of  observing  the  rate 
of  recession  of  the  ground  water.  With  the  begin- 
ning of  the  crop  season  of  1910,  observations  were 
begun  as  to  the  depth  of  the  water  in  these  open 
wells,  and  samples  of  the  water  were  tested  from 
time  to  time  with  the  electrolytic  bridge  to  deter- 
mine the  salt  content.  The  necessary  instruments 
were  also  installed  to  observe  the  air  temperature, 
wind  velocity,  and  the  temperature  of  the  seed  bed. 

Chemical  analyses  showed  the  presence  in  the  soil 


AMONG  TITLE  MAESHES  AND  LAKES    303 

and  water  of  large  quantities  of  soluble  salts,  chiefly 
carbonates  of  sodium,  calcium,  and  magnesium,  in 
other  words,  lime  and  black  alkali.  Repeated  and 
various  experiments  were  made  in  an  effort  to  leach 
out  these  salts.  All  went  to  show  that  the  down- 
ward and  lateral  movement  of  the  water  into  the 
land  was  so  slow  as  to  make  very  doubtful  the  pos- 
sibility of  reclaiming  the  land  by  leaching  out  the 
excess  of  alkaline  salts. 

Further  investigation  revealed  that  there  was  far 
less  deposition  of  rock  sediment  or  silt  to  mix  with 
the  aquatic  vegetation  than  had  been  supposed, 
hence  the  marsh  lands  were  lacking  in  essential  ele- 
ments of  fertility.  Furthermore,  the  decomposition 
of  the  aquatic  vegetation  furthered  the  development 
of  black  alkali.  The  study  of  the  problem  of  evapo- 
ration of  this  vast  body  of  water  showed  also  that 
the  conditions  are  such  that  low  temperatures  and 
killing  frosts  were  likely  to  occur  during  every 
month  of  the  year,  thus  limiting  the  possible  crops 
to  the  hardier  species. 

And  thus  the  matter  practically  stands  today. 
The  farmers  of  the  region  cannot  believe  that  these 
marsh  lands  are  fundamentally  different  from  other 
marsh  lands,  and  yet  no  way  has  yet  been  found  to 
make  them  profitable  under  cultivation.  Hence  fur- 
ther reclamation  must  be  undertaken  with  caution 
to  prevent  unproductive  expenditures. 

On  the  remainder  of  the  lands  of  the  project, 
however,  conditions  are  generally  favourable.  Al- 
falfa, timothy,  alsike,  red  and  white  clover,  redtop, 
and  orchard  grass  are  the  principal  hay  crops. 
Some  sweet  clover  is  grown  on  lands  not  well  suited 


304       EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

to  the  other  grasses  and  experimental  plots  of 
Sudan  grass  have  yielded  well.  Alfalfa  does  well 
on  all  lands  where  there  is  sufficient  depth  of  soil. 
Alsike  clover  and  redtop  grow  better  on  the  shal- 
lower soils  and  on  those  partially  seeded.  Consid- 
erable areas  were  sown  in  grains  in  1915  and 
in  1916  owing  to  high  prices  prevailing;  the 
yield  for  1915  was  generally  good  for  wheat,  oats, 
barley,  and  rye.  The  season  of  1916  was  late  with 
heavy  frosts  late  in  June,  which  lowered  the  yield 
for  that  season.  Eutabagas,  sugar  beets,  and  pota- 
toes yield  well,  though  late  frosts  sometimes  injure 
the  potatoes.  Fruits  and  berries  do  well  and  each 
farm  can  raise  sufficient  for  home  use  without 
trouble.  In  some  favoured  localities  apples  do  well, 
and  peaches,  plums,  prunes,  and  cherries  are  grown 
to  a  small  extent.  Pears  do  well  and  yield  heavily. 
Owing  to  the  elevation  and  consequent  late  frosts  it 
can  not  be  considered  a  fruit  country. 

The  average  return  per  acre  on  the  27,254  acres 
irrigated  in  1915  was  $13.85,  and  while  some  indi- 
vidual farmers  have  had  a  rather  hard  time,  the  gen- 
eral air  of  the  region  is  one  of  fairly  contented  pros- 
perity. The  growth  of  the  city  of  Klamath  Falls 
may  be  regarded  as  an  index  to  the  development  of 
the  country.  In  1904  it  had  a  population  of  less 
than  500,  now  it  numbers  over  6,000. 

When  the  Service  entered  the  district  there  was  a 
small  area  of  land  under  irrigation  from  privately 
owned  canals,  on  which  alfalfa  lands  were  held  at 
a  value  of  from  $20  to  $30  per  acre.  Choice  dry 
land  in  the  surrounding  country  sold  for  $5  or  $6 
per  acre.  At  the  present  time  lands  under  Govern- 


AMONG  TULE  MARSHES  AND  LAKES  305 

ment  Canals  sell  for  from  $50  to  $100  per  acre,  de- 
pending upon  location;  and  dry  lands  adjacent  are 
being  sold  at  from  $10  to  $20  per  acre.  The  gen- 
eral increase  in  land  values  since  the  first  operations 
of  the  Reclamation  Service  has  been  from  100  per 
cent  to  300  per  cent. 

In  conclusion  it  will  readily  be  recognized  that 
this  project  has  demonstrated  the  fact  that  it  was 
one  that  only  the  Government  could  have  experi- 
mented with  and  developed  as  far  as  has  been  done. 
Mere  interest  charges  would  have  swamped  private 
capital.  It  has  presented,  and  still  presents,  com- 
plex problems.  It  has  not  only  irrigation  and 
drainage  problems,  but  an  evaporation  and  run-off 
problem,  any  one  of  which  is  difficult  in  itself,  but 
all  of  which  taken  together  form  a  most  perplexing 
whole.  In  nearly  all  Reclamation  projects,  whether 
of  the  Government  or  private  owners,  water  has  to 
be  conserved.  Here,  however,  there  is  more  than 
enough,  and  one  of  the  great  questions  is  how  to  get 
rid  of  it. 

The  cost  charges  per  acre  on  the  different  units 
are  as  follows:  First  unit,  $30  per  acre;  Second 
unit,  $30  per  acre;  Third  unit,  $39  and  $45  per  acre. 

The  present  Project  Manager  is  J.  B.  Bond,  with 
office  at  Klamath  Falls,  Oregon. 


CHAPTEE  XXYII 

HELPING   PREVENT   MISSISSIPPI   VALLEY   FLOODS. 
THE  BELLE   FOTJRCHE   PROJECT,    SOUTH   DAKOTA 

As  early  as  1903  The  Northwest  Post,  published 
in  South  Dakota,  called  attention  to  the  wisdom  of 
the  citizens  of  Butte  County  selecting  several  reser- 
voir sites  for  the  consideration  of  the  engineers  of 
the  Eeclamation  Service.  Among  other  things  the 
editor  said: 

Going  north  we  find  Owl,  Indian,  Antelope,  Battle,  Four 
Mile,  Moreau,  Sand,  and  North  Moreau  Creeks,  where  floods 
regularly  occur.  The  little  Missouri  and  Grand  rivers  are 
available  for  irrigating  large  areas  of  the  north  part  of  the 
county ;  and  last,  but  not  least,  if  the  vast  volume  of  water 
carried  off  by  the  Belle  Fourche  Eiver  was  stored  until 
needed  for  irrigation,  it  would  supply  a  large  area  along 
both  sides  of  its  valley.  The  Redwater  Eiver  being  already 
appropriated  to  its  full  capacity,  it  is  not  available,  unless 
the  Government  should  take  over  the  rights  of  the  present 
appropriators. 

In  looking  over  the  hydrographic  situation  in  this  county, 
we  find  that  if  the  water  supply  of  the  county  could  be  con- 
served, it  would  be  ample  for  our  needs,  while  as  it  now  is  it 
does  us  no  good,  and  causes  no  end  of  trouble  and  expense 
to  our  neighbours  along  the  lower  Mississippi. 

Already  private  enterprise  was  in  the  field. 
Fully  $100,000  had  been  expended  in  constructing 
earthwork  dams  for  the  storage  of  water,  but  the 
greater  possibilities  of  the  flood-waters  of  the  Belle 
Fourche  Eiver  were  too  great  to  undertake.  Ac- 

306 


PEEVENTING  MISSISSIPPI  FLOODS    307 

cordingly  in  April,  1903,  the  citizens  of  Butte 
County  forwarded  a  petition  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Interior  setting  forth  the  following  facts,  viz. :  that 
Butte  County,  South  Dakota,  comprises  7,689  square 
miles  (larger  than  the  whole  state  of  New  Jersey) ; 
that  the  flood-waters  of  the  Belle  Fourche  Eiver  if 
conserved  would  reclaim  large  tracts  of  arid  lands 
at  small  expense;  that  suitable  reservoir  sites  ex- 
isted, and  that  the  major  portion  of  the  irrigable 
lands  were  public. 

As  the  result  of  this  petition  careful  reconnais- 
sances were  made  of  the  region,  and  although  exact 
data  upon  the  water  run-off  of  the  country  were  not 
available,  it  seemed  reasonable  to  plan  for  the  di- 
version of  the  Belle  Fourche  Kiver  a  short  distance 
below  the  mouth  of  the  Eedwater  into  a  large  con- 
duit which  should  convey  it  to  a  reservoir  to  be  con- 
structed on  Owl  Creek  at  its  junction  with  Dry 
Creek,  about  eight  miles  in  an  air-line  from  the  di- 
version point,  from  whence  it  could  be  canaled  to 
irrigate  large  tracts  of  land  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  as  far  east  as  Willow  Creek  on  the  north  and 
Butte  Creek  on  the  south. 

The  Belle  Fourche  Eiver  drains  an  area  of  about 
4,300  square  miles  in  western  South  Dakota  and 
eastern  Wyoming,  including  the  northern  slope  of 
the  Black  Hills.  The  discharge  of  the  river  occurs 
mostly  in  the  spring  and  early  summer  months,  it 
being  relatively  low  in  the  late  summer  and  fall. 
Hence  irrigation  on  a  large  scale  could  be  based  only 
upon  the  storage  of  a  full  season's  supply.  Photo- 
graphs taken  locally  prior  to  the  advent  of  the  Serv- 
ice showed  the  Belle  Fourche  at  flood  evidently 


308        RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

pouring  forth  considerable  waste  water.  This  it 
was  determined  to  arrest  and  store  until  needed. 
Measurements  made  from  1903  to  1915  have  since 
given  the  following  facts:  The  annual  run-off,  in 
acre-feet,  maximum,  554,608;  minimum,  119,860; 
mean,  315,359. 

The  lands  to  be  irrigated  looked  first-class,  and 
the  engineer  of  soils  recommended  that  the  farm 
unit  be  limited  to  40  acres.  This  was  afterwards 
raised  to  80  acres.  The  area  in  1916  for  which  the 
Service  was  prepared  to  supply  water  was  78,591 
acres,  and  there  were  applications  signed  for  61,313 
acres.  The  length  of  the  irrigation  season  is  from 
May  1  to  October  1 — 152  days,  and  the  average  rain- 
fall 14.5  inches.  In  1915  it  reached  21.44  inches. 
The  average  elevation  of  the  irrigable  area  is  2,800 
feet  above  the  sea,  and  its  temperature  varies  from 
-30°  to  103°  Fahr. 

The  diversion  dam  on  the  Belle  Fourche  Eiver  is 
about  1%  miles  below  the  town  of  Belle  Fourche. 
It  is  a  concrete  weir  23  feet  in  height  and  400  feet 
long  between  abutments,  with  900  feet  of  earth  em- 
bankments. Beyond  the  north  abutment  are  located 
the  sluiceway  and  the  intake  for  the  inlet  canal. 
This  canal  is  6%  miles  long  and  has  a  capacity  of 
1,600  second-feet.  It  is  located  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  river  and  extends  from  the  intake  in  an  east- 
erly direction  through  the  divide  to  Dry  Creek, 
where  the  water  passes  by  a  10-foot  drop  into  the 
reservoir.  The  terminus  of  the  canal  is  protected 
by  a  semicircular  concrete  weir,  180  feet  long, 
founded  on  shale,  with  a  maximum  depth  of  2  feet  of 
water  over  its  crest  at  full  canal  discharge. 


PREVENTING  MISSISSIPPI  FLOODS    309 

About  half  a  mile  below  the  intake  the  canal 
crosses  Crow  Creek,  a  stream  which  is  dry  during 
the  larger  portion  of  the  year,  but  which  has  a 
drainage  area  of  about  130  square  miles,  and  car- 
ries, during  the  flood  season,  a  large  amount  of  un- 
appropriated water  which  is  available  for  storage. 
It  was  decided  to  take  this  water  into  the  canal,  and 
to  guard  against  damage  from  excessive  floods,  a 
concrete  overflow  weir  180  feet  long  was  designed. 
In  this  weir  are  three  sluice-gates,  5  x  10  feet  each, 
with  sills  below  the  grade  of  the  canal,  to  sluice  out 
the  mud  washed  in  by  Crow  Creek. 

The  main  storage  reservoir  is  formed  by  an 
earthen  dam  6,493  feet  long,  with  a  maximum  height 
of  about  115  feet.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  earthen 
dams  in  the  United  States.  The  reservoir  covers 
over  8,000  acres  at  high  water,  and  has  a  capacity  of 
about  200,000  acre-feet,  or  65  billion  gallons.  With 
such  an  enormous  storage,  and  the  attendant  possi- 
bility of  an  appalling  disaster  should  a  break  occur 
in  the  embankment,  it  was  essential  that  the  most 
thorough  and  careful  consideration  be  given  to  in- 
sure its  perfect  safety.  The  material  below  the 
damsite  was  thoroughly  prospected  and  found  to  be 
highly  desirable.  A  cut-off  trench  was  excavated 
the  entire  length  of  the  dam  to  a  depth  of  from  five 
to  twenty  feet,  ten  feet  wide  on  the  bottom.  This 
was  refilled  with  selected  material  in  4-inch  layers, 
wetted  and  rolled.  Additional  trenches  were  pro- 
vided in  the  wider  portions  of  the  base.  The  clay 
for  the  embankment  was  carefully  chosen  so  that  it 
did  not  include  soluble  salts,  which  would  destroy 
its  impervious  qualities.  As  fast  as  it  was  put  into 


310        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

place  it  was  wetted  and  then  rolled  with  21-ton  trac- 
tion engines. 

The  water-slope  of  the  dam  for  a  short  distance 
above  the  toe  is  5  to  1,  this  flat  slope  being  near  the 
bottom  and  unprotected  against  wave  action. 
Higher  up,  however,  it  was  necessary  to  secure  the 
dam  against  the  effect  of  waves.  At  times  this  is  a 
stormy  region,  the  wind  attaining  a  high  velocity, 
and  waves  under  such  conditions  are  created  that 
can  wreak  considerable  havoc.  When  it  is  also  re- 
called that  in  winter-time  the  ice-sheet  is  several 
feet  in  thickness  and  consequently  possess  great 
thrusting  force,  it  was  decided  to  pave  the  dam  with 
concrete  blocks,  each  about  a  ton  and  a  half  in 
weight,  bedded  in  gravel  to  prevent  slipping. 
These  blocks  were  6%  feet  long,  5  feet  wide,  and  8 
inches  thick,  and  they  were  laid  with  exceeding  care, 
so  as  to  form  a  smooth  and  perfect  surface.  Six- 
teen thousand  of  them  were  put  into  place  before 
the  dam  was  completed. 

The  need  for  these  was  soon  to  be  apparent.  On 
the  night  of  April  13,  1912,  when  there  were  about 
100,000  acre-feet  in  the  reservoir,  a  high  wind  from 
the  west  arose,  estimated  at  70  miles  an  hour,  which 
caused  waves  in  the  reservoir  8  to  10  feet  in  height 
to  beat  against  the  concreted  slope  of  the  dam. 
During  the  fiercest  attacks  the  dam  seemed  to  bear 
all  onslaughts  without  injury  until,  at  the  final  cul- 
mination of  the  storm,  between  midnight  and  4  A.  M. 
of  April  14,  the  receding  waves  periodically  relieved 
the  weight  of  the  face  of  the  concrete  blocks,  so  that 
the  back-pressure  of  the  water  behind  the  blocks  dis- 
placed several  of  them  on  the  seventeenth  course. 


PBEVENTING  MISSISSIPPI  FLOODS    311 

This  permitted  tile  waves  to  act  npon  their  gravel 
foundation  and  gradually  undermined  the  blocks 
above  as  far  up  the  slopes  as  the  waves  could  act, 
and  also  laterally  to  a  great  extent,  allowing  the 
blocks  to  slide  down,  thus  forming  an  irregular  pave- 
ment. About  250  blocks  were  thus  removed  as  well 
as  the  gravel  behind  them.  None,  however,  were 
broken.  A  careful  study  of  these  results  of  the 
storm  led  the  engineers  to  believe  that  had  the  blocks 
been  twice  as  wide — up  and  down — as  they  were,  or 
had  they  been  fastened  to  the  courses  above  and 
below,  the  accident  could  not  have  happened.  All 
the  blocks  had  been  laid  with  vertical  joints  broken, 
so  that  each  corner  of  a  block  was  at  a  three-way 
joint.  Therefore,  to  prevent  a  similar  injury,  at 
each  of  these  joints  a  1%-inch  hole  was  drilled,  and 
this  hole  filled  with  grout  to  act  as  a  bond,  or  tie, 
holding  the  blocks  together. 

But  another,  and  severer,  storm  in  May,  1916, 
when  the  wind  blew  at  approximately  65  miles  an 
hour,  demonstrated  that  the  precautions  thus  taken 
were  inadequate.  There  was  much  more  water  in 
the  reservoir,  and  the  twenty-second  course  of 
blocks  was  the  one  attacked.  To  prevent  future  dis- 
aster, the  blocks  in  the  danger  zone  have  been  re- 
moved and  replaced,  the  length  extending  up  and 
down  the  slope  instead  of  horizontally,  and  cement- 
mortared  at  all  points. 

A  slight  seepage  was  discovered  down  stream 
after  the  reservoir  was  placed  in  service,  but  a  small 
drain  was  provided  which  has  proven  effective. 

The  North  Canal  is  about  45  miles  long  and  heads 
at  the  north  outlet  conduit.  Its  capacity  is  1,600 


312        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

cubic-feet  per  second  to  the  wasteway  channel  which 
it  crosses  half  a  mile  from  the  dam,  and  here  are 
located  spillway  gates.  Below  this  point  the  capac- 
ity is  650  cubic-feet  per  second,  the  bottom  width  is 
28  feet,  and  the  water  depth  7  feet. 

About  8  miles  from  the  head  of  the  North  Canal, 
just  before  crossing  Indian  Creek,  it  is  provided 
with  a  sluiceway,  and  a  drop  of  36  feet  into  Indian 
Creek,  by  which  the  water  can  be  quickly  turned  out 
of  the  canal  in  case  of  a  break.  The  water  is  dis- 
charged by  the  sluice  into  Indian  Creek  at  about  200 
feet  above  the  flume  crossing.  This  flume  across 
Indian  Creek  is  43  feet  above  the  creek-bed,  and 
1,300  feet  long.  It  is  built  of  galvanized  steel  and 
supported  on  wooden  bents,  anchored  to  concrete 
bases. 

In  order  to  avoid  building  a  lateral  parallel  to  the 
main  canal,  the  farm  units  along  the  canal  are 
mostly  provided  with  a  separate  turn-out,  consist- 
ing of  a  12-inch  vitrified  clay-pipe  with  concrete  inlet 
and  outlet,  controlled  by  a  steel  gate  working  in  a 
steel  frame,  and  moved  by  means  of  a  screw  stem 
inclined  20  degrees  from  the  vertical.  Most  of  these 
outlets  are  12  inches  in  diameter. 

The  South  Canal  heads  at  the  south  outlet  of  the 
Belle  Fourche  Eeservoir,  and  runs  in  a  southerly 
and  easterly  direction,  a  total  length  of  about  45 
miles.  It  furnishes  water  to  4,000  acres  west  of 
Owl  Creek,  and  to  28,000  acres  south  of  the  Belle 
Fourche  Eiver.  The  canal  crosses  the  river  by 
means  of  a  pressure  pipe  or  inverted  siphon,  3,565 
feet  in  length,  working  under  a  maximum  head  of 
65  feet,  and  an  average  head  of  50  feet.  It  is  built 


PREVENTING  MISSISSIPPI  FLOODS    313 

of  reinforced  concrete  and  has  an  internal  diameter 
of  five  feet.  The  shell  is  8  inches  thick,  and  is  re- 
inforced with  305,000  pounds  of  %-inch  and  %-inch 
steel  bars.  The  inlet  and  outlet  structures  are  both 
of  reinforced  concrete,  the  former  being  protected 
by  a  steel  grizzly  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  drift. 

About  two  miles  east  of  the  river-crossing  the 
canal  passes  through  a  high  bluff,  through  a  tunnel, 
1,306  feet  in  length.  It  is  horseshoe  in  shape,  and 
has  a  maximum  width  of  9%  feet,  and  a  centre  width 
of  10%  feet.  It  is  timbered  throughout. 

The  South  Canal  is  carried  across  Anderson  Draw 
by  means  of  a  reinforced  concrete  pressure  pipe  425 
feet  long,  under  a  head  of  about  45  feet,  and  under 
Whitewood  Creek  by  means  of  another  concrete  pipe 
350  feet  long,  under  a  head  of  15  feet. 

The  distribution  system  includes  400  miles  of  lat- 
eral canals,  and  over  1,000  small  structures.  It  is 
designed  to  deliver  water  to  each  unit  of  80  acres  or 
larger,  and  to  carry  a  cubic  foot  per  second  to  each 
30  acres,  with  a  minimum  canal  capacity  of  4  cubic 
feet  per  second,  so  that  by  rotation  every  irrigator 
can  use  that  head  of  water  if  he  chooses. 

In  the  earlier  years  of  work  on  the  project  there 
was  the  usual  rush  of  settlers  to  gain  possession  of 
land,  but  from  1912  to  1916  there  seemed  to  be  a  lull. 
The  first  six  months  of  1916,  however,  showed  fresh 
interest,  until  now  there  are  but  56  unentered  farm 
units  on  the  project. 

Steadily  the  settlers  have  advanced  towards 
greater  prosperity  and  comfort.  The  conditions  of 
life  on  the  project  are  reasonably  favourable  and 
are  constantly  improving. 


314        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

The  town  of  Belle  Fourche,  the  highest  point  in 
the  district,  has  an  altitude  of  3,000  feet,  and  in 
plain  sight  above  the  city  are  the  Black  Hills, 
shouldering  their  way  thousands  of  feet  into  the  air. 
Harney's  Peak,  rising  7,216  feet,  is  part  of  the 
range,  and  is  the  highest  peak  in  the  state. 

A  delightful  climate,  with  an  abundance  of  sun- 
shine is  found  in  the  Belle  Fourche  Valley.  The  air 
is  clear  and  pure,  and  attracts  attention  by  its  ex- 
hilarating effect.  The  rainfall  occurs  largely  in 
May  and  June,  after  which  a  long  season  of  fair 
weather  may  be  depended  upon.  The  nights  are 
always  cool.  Pleasant  weather  lasts  until  late  in 
the  fall,  the  earliest  frosts  occur  usually  about 
October  1.  During  the  winter  there  is  little  snow 
and  no  great  amount  of  cold  weather,  and  more  or 
less  work  is  done  in  the  fields  all  through  the  season. 
The  minimum  temperature  is  38°  below  zero.  The 
sudden  breaking  up  of  winter  is  a  noticeable  feature 
of  the  climate. 

In  the  early  part  of  1910  the  Chicago  &  North 
Western  Railway  Co.  constructed  a  line  from  Belle 
Fourche  to  Newell,  S.  D.,  a  distance  of  23  miles. 
Three  new  towns  were  started  along  this  line  as  fol- 
lows: Fruitdale,  S.  D.,  a  village  with  a  present 
population  of  about  150,  located  a  distance  of  8.5 
miles  east  of  Belle  Fourche.  Nisland,  S.  D.,  located 
between  Fruitdale  and  Newell,  along  the  Belle 
Fourche  River,  is  a  growing  little  town  and  prac- 
tically all  lines  of  business  are  represented  there. 
The  population  at  present  is  around  250.  The  town 
being  situated  in  the  heart  of  the  older  settled  por- 
tion of  the  project  is  rapidly  becoming  one  of  the 


PLACING  THE  CONCRETE  BLOCKS  ON  UPSTREAM  FACE  OP  BELLE 

FOURCHE  DAM 
BELLE  FOURCHE  PROJECT,  SOUTH  DAKOTA 


SPILLWAY  AT  HEAD  OP  WASTE  CHANNEL,  NORTH  END  OF 

BELLE  FOURCHE  DAM 
BELLE  FOURCHE  PROJECT,  SOUTH  DAKOTA 


PREVENTING  MISSISSIPPI  FLOODS    315 

most  important  shipping  points  of  the  project  for 
grain  and  livestock,  also  alfalfa  hay.  Dairying  is 
being  undertaken  by  a  large  number  of  farmers  and 
shipments  of  butter  fat  are  increasing  at  a  good 
rate.  Newell,  S.  D.,  the  government  town,  is  the 
present  terminus  of  the  Chicago  &  North  Western 
Eailway,  and  is  located  in  the  centre  of  the  irrigation 
project.  The  town  is  now  a  little  over  six  years  old, 
and  has  a  population  of  about  400.  It  is  surrounded 
by  40  acre  farm  units.  Shipments  of  hogs,  cattle, 
sheep,  forage,  grain  and  butter  show  a  steady  in- 
crease. In  addition  to  the  growth  and  development 
of  the  irrigated  area,  the  increase  in  shipments  is 
due  to  the  location  of  the  town.  It  being  the  eastern 
terminus  of  the  railroad  naturally  draws  to  it  all 
shipments  from  the  open  range  to  the  north  and 
east.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  sugar  beets  can 
be  successfully  grown  in  this  vicinity  and  tests  made 
show  that  the  beets  are  of  superior  quality  for  the 
manufacture  of  sugar. 

Throughout  the  valley  timber  is  found  along  the 
borders  of  the  streams,  and  hardy  trees  and  shrubs 
grow  luxuriantly  wherever  water  is  supplied. 
Orchards  of  hardy  fruits,  such  as  apples,  plums,  and 
cherries,  do  fairly  well  with  proper  care. 

There  is  an  abundant  underground  water  supply 
in  the  Belle  Fourche  district.  Borings  of  from  500 
to  3,000  feet  reach  flowing  water  and  the  supply  is 
apparently  unlimited  throughout  the  upper  part  of 
the  valley.  Belle  Fourche  is  furnished  with  excel- 
lent water  from  three  artesian  wells  flowing  into  a 
50,000  gallon  tank.  There  are  also  a  number  of  pri- 
vate artesian  wells  within  the  city  limits.  The 


316        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

higher  lying  lands  in  the  lower  part  of  the  valley  at 
present  depend  on  cistern  and  canal  water  for 
domestic  use. 

The  wide  valleys  and  rolling  hills  of  the  Belle 
Fourche  district  offer  two  distinct  kinds  of  soil; 
that  on  the  south  side  of  the  river  is  a  sandy  loam, 
that  on  the  north  a  heavy  clay.  Throughout  the 
region  there  is  a  large  amount  of  rough  land.  This 
land,  too  high  for  irrigation,  has  been  divided  as 
nearly  equal  as  possible  among  the  different  farm 
units.  It  is  suitable  chiefly  for  grazing  purposes, 
with  here  and  there  areas  on  which  dry  crops  may 
be  produced.  All  the  soil  is  extremely  fertile,  culti- 
vation is  easy  and  no  hard  pan  is  found.  In  years 
when  the  rainfall  is  sufficient,  fine  crops  can  be 
raised  in  the  valley,  but  a  crop  cannot  be  depended 
upon  without  irrigation. 

In  the  low-lying  lands  of  creek  and  river  bottoms, 
tall  wheat  grass  and  native  hay  grow  abundantly, 
and  these  crops  sell  at  high  prices.  The  level  up- 
land stretches  outside  the  project  are  dotted  with 
cattle  and  sheep  grazing  on  the  nutritious  wild 
grasses  that  cover  the  prairies.  Thousands  of  acres 
of  alfalfa,  of  which  three  crops  may  be  cut  in  a 
season,  furnish  one  of  the  principal  products.  All 
the  cereals,  including  corn,  are  grown,  the  fields 
yielding  from  20  to  75  bushels  per  acre.  While  the 
quality  of  the  potatoes  grown  bespeaks  for  them  a 
place  on  every  farm,  the  sandy  soil  south  of  the 
river  is  especially  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  this 
crop.  Sugar  beets  raised  here  contain  a  large  con- 
tent (18.5  per  cent)  of  sugar.  Agreements  to  plant 


PBEVENTING  MISSISSIPPI  FLOODS    317 

out  2,300  acres  have  been  signed  for  1917,  and  a 
sugar  factory  is  promised  for  1918. 

The  vast  open  country  surrounding  the  valley  to 
the  north,  east  and  west,  affords  pasturage  for  large 
herds,  making  this  one  of  the  best  cattle  ranges  in 
the  United  States.  As  many  as  5,000  carloads  of 
cattle  have  been  shipped  from  Belle  Fourche,  S.  D., 
in  a  year.  Large  flocks  of  sheep  also  feed  on  the 
ranges,  and  immense  quantities  of  wool  are  shipped 
annually  from  this  region. 

The  raising  of  hogs  is  rapidly  becoming  one  of 
the  principal  industries.  Large  quantities  of  al- 
falfa, barley,  and  feed  corn  are  produced  in  the  val- 
ley, and  owing  to  the  dry  atmosphere,  diseases 
peculiar  to  the  hog  are  uncommon.  Poultry  raising 
is  profitable  as  there  is  a  constant  demand  for  eggs 
as  well  as  chickens. 

The  climate,  the  richly  nutritious  native  grasses, 
and  the  easily  grown  alfalfa,  make  ideal  conditions 
for  dairying.  With  the  convenient  market  for  dairy 
products  offered  in  the  mining  towns  of  the  Black 
Hills,  dairying  is  rapidly  becoming  one  of  the  lead- 
ing industries.  A  well  equipped  creamery  at  Belle 
Fourche,  S.  D.,  is  doing  a  good,  substantial  business. 

Fruits  and  vegetables  raised  in  the  valley  can  be 
sold  in  the  mining  camps  of  the  Black  Hills,  where 
employment  is  given  to  thousands  of  men.  Dead- 
wood,  Lead,  and  other  of  these  busy  mining  towns 
are  only  about  40  miles  distant  from  the  centre  of 
the  project.  Milk,  eggs,  butter,  poultry  and  gar- 
den-truck all  bring  good  returns,  and  there  is  a  con- 
stant and  growing  demand  for  these  farm  products. 


318       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

Sturgis,  Whitewood,  Belle  Fourche,  and  other  towns 
have  direct  railroad  connection  over  the  Chicago  & 
North  Western  Ey.  with  Omaha,  Sioux  City,  St. 
Paul,  Minneapolis,  Chicago  and  other  large  cities. 

The  present  population  on  the  project  is  about 
4,200.  About  15,000  acres  remain  to  be  furnished 
with  distributing  laterals.  The  construction  cost 
has  been  fixed  at  $30,  $40,  and  $45  per  acre,  payable 
in  twenty  years  without  interest. 

The  present  Project  Manager  is  B.  E.  Hayden 
with  office  at  Newell,  South  Dakota. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

IN    MORMON    LAND. 
THE    STRAWBERRY  VALLEY   PROJECT,   UTAH 

The  Strawberry  Valley  Project  is  located  in  the 
counties  of  Utah  and  Wasatch,  Utah,  and  it  receives 
its  name  from  the  location  of  its  reservoir.  Its 
source  of  water  supply  is  the  Strawberry  and 
Spanish  Fork  rivers,  and  a  number  of  small 
streams  and  springs  not  on  the  watersheds  of  these 
two.  Strawberry  Eiver  has  a  drainage  area,  in- 
cluding Indian  and  Trail  Hollow  creeks,  of  175 
square  miles,  while  Spanish  Fork  Eiver 's  area  is 
670  square  miles. 

With  an  average  elevation  of  the  irrigable  area 
at  about  4,600  feet  above  sea  level,  and  a  tempera- 
ture that  ranges  from  10°  to  95°  Fahr.  it  can  well  be 
seen  that  its  agricultural  and  horticultural  products 
are  somewhat  limited,  being  in  the  main  alfalfa,  hay, 
cereals,  sugar  beets,  and  the  hardier  fruits  and  vege- 
tables. 

The  soil  is  excellent,  as  a  rule,  being  sandy  loam, 
heavy  clay,  and  a  varying  mixture  of  both;  black 
alluvium ;  loam  and  gravel.  Much  of  it  is  underlaid 
by  a  coarse  gravel,  and  the  natural  drainage  is  ex- 
cellent. 

The  irrigation  plan  of  the  Strawberry  Valley 
Project  provides  for  the  storage  of  water  in  the 
reservoir  on  Strawberry  Eiver ;  the  discharge  of  the 
stored  water  through  the  Strawberry  Tunnel  driven 

319 


320        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

through  the  Wasatch  Mountains,  approximately 
three  and  three-quarters  miles  long,  into  Diamond 
Fork,  a  tributary  of  Spanish  Fork  Eiver;  and  the 
diversion  of  water  from  Spanish  Fork  Eiver  into 
canal  systems,  watering  lands  east  and  south  of 
Utah  Lake.  A  hydro-electric  plant  on  the  south 
side  of  the  river  three  and  one-quarter  miles  below 
the  diversion  dam  supplies  power  for  construction 
and  commercial  purposes.  Part  of  the  power  de- 
veloped will  ultimately  be  used  for  pumping  water 
for  irrigation  of  high  lands  and  drainage  of  low 
lands.  The  United  States  claims  all  waste,  seep- 
age, unappropriated  spring  and  percolating  water 
arising  within  the  project,  and  proposes  to  use  such 
water  in  connection  therewith,  as  it  does  on  all  of  its 
projects. 

The  Strawberry  Valley  Project  will  furnish  a 
full  or  partial  water  right  to  a  total  area  of  about 
70,000  acres  located  in  Utah  County.  Part  of  this 
area  has  a  flood  water  right  from  Spanish  Fork 
Eiver,  but  on  account  of  the  supply  being  low  after 
July  1st,  only  certain  early  crops  could  be  raised.  A 
part  of  this  area  will  need  one-fourth  of  a  water 
right,  a  part  one-half  of  a  water  right,  and  about 
30,000  acres  a  full  water  right  from  the  project.  All 
but  about  4,000  acres  of  the  land  is  in  private  owner- 
ship. 

This  section  of  Utah  was  settled  first  about  1850 
and  was  developed  as  far  as  practicable  with  the 
water  supply.  A  generation  has  been  born  and 
raised  on  this  land,  but  the  young  folks  have  had  to 
go  elsewhere  for  land  as  there  was  no  water  to  irri- 
gate more  land  here.  With  the  advent  of  the  Straw- 


IN  MORMON  LAND  321 

berry  water  there  will  be  an  abundant  supply  for  a 
large  acreage  and  while  the  average  holding  at  pres- 
ent is  less  than  40  acres,  the  present  indications  are 
that  divisions  of  the  land  will  bring  the  individual 
holdings  to  less  than  20  acres  within  a  short  time. 
Many  new  settlers  have  come  in  during  the  past  year 
and  the  benefit  from  the  project  may  be  considered 
general. 

The  Government  land  located  in  the  Goshen  Valley 
that  is  to  be  irrigated  will  be  opened  for  entry  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  1917,  and  with  the  opening  up 
of  this  area,  and  the  area  of  private  land  that  has 
already  been  cultivated  as  dry  farms  on  the  west  end 
of  the  project,  a  sufficient  new  population  will  be 
brought  in  to  support  a  town  located  about  8  miles 
west  of  Payson. 

As  yet  no  lands  have  been  opened  for  irrigation 
by  public  notice,  the  major  part  of  the  most  avail- 
able having  been  occupied  in  private  ownership  long 
before  the  project  was  contemplated. 

The  project  includes  the  following  units:  Span- 
ish Fork,  Lake  Shore,  Mapleton  and  High  Line  units ; 
Clinton,  Soldier  Fork  and  Diamond  Fork  districts; 
the  difference  between  a  unit  and  a  district  being 
as  follows : 

A  unit  is  a  section  of  the  project  on  which  water 
is  sold  to  private  individuals  under  the  same  terms 
and  conditions  to  all,  each  individual  executing  a 
water  right  application  mortgaging  the  land  for  the 
water,  the  water  being  supplied  to  the  unit  from  the 
project  water  supply.  A  district  designates  an  area 
on  the  upper  branches  of  the  Spanish  Fork  Eiver  to 
which  water  is  sold  under  the  Warren  Act,  all  the 


322        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

water  users  signing  one  contract,  the  Government 
agreeing  to  turn  certain  water  into  the  river  for  this 
district  and  the  district  in  turn  trading  this  water  to 
the  owners  of  old  rights  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
river  for  the  privilege  of  diverting  water  from  the 
upper  branches  of  the  river  that  was  originally  used 
on  the  lower  land,  as  for  instance, — the  Spanish  Fork 
and  High  Line  units  are  irrigated  from  water  di- 
rectly from  the  water  supply  available  for  the  proj- 
ect. The  Clinton  District  is  located  on  the  upper 
branches  of  the  Spanish  Fork  Eiver  above  the  source 
of  supply,  and  while  they  cannot  get  any  project 
water,  they  can  buy  it  and  trade  it  for  some  of  the  old 
water  rights  in  the  Spanish  Fork  Eiver  and  divert  it 
onto  their  lands.  This  scheme  was  devised  for  the 
purpose  of  assisting  in  the  further  development  of 
a  number  of  old  settled  districts  on  the  upper  part 
of  the  Spanish  Fork  Eiver  that  did  not  have  a  suf- 
ficient water  right  of  their  own,  having  settled  on  the 
land  after  the  water  was  filed  on  by  canals  lower 
down.  By  arranging  thus  to  sell  them  water,  and 
allowing  them  to  exchange  it,  they  were  enabled  to 
divert  the  water  that  they  had  always  had  to  allow 
to  flow  by,  for  the  use  of  lower  lands. 

The  Spanish  Fork  Unit.  This  unit  is  made  up  of 
about  31,000  acres  of  land  located  on  both  sides  of 
the  Spanish  Fork  Eiver  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town 
of  Spanish  Fork.  The  greater  part  of  this  area  has 
a  flood-water  right  from  the  Spanish  Fork  Eiver  and 
is  irrigated  by  four  existing  canals,  and  during 
March  and  April  contracts  were  entered  into  with 
them  as  follows : 

Spanish  Fork  East  Bench  Irrigation  &  Manufac- 


POWER-HOUSE  AND  WASTEWAY  CHUTE 
STRAWBERRY  VALLEY  PROJECT,  UTAH 


BRIDGE  ACROSS  WASTEWAY  AT  NORTH  END  OF  STRAWBERRY  DAM 
STRAWBERRY  VALLEY  PROJECT,  UTAH 


IN  MOBMON  LAND  323 

taring  Company,  March  25,  1915;  Spanish  Fork 
South  Field  Irrigation  Company,  March  25,  1915; 
Spanish  Fork  Southeast  Irrigation  Company,  April 
25,  1915 ;  Spanish  Fork  West  Field  Irrigation  Com- 
pany, March  25,  1915. 

In  these  contracts  these  companies  agreed  to  de- 
liver through  their  canal  systems  any  water  that 
might  be  sold  from  the  Strawberry  Valley  Project  to 
lands  that  could  be  irrigated  from  their  canals,  a 
reasonable  charge  to  be  made  for  such  carriage  and 
such  extension  of  the  system  as  might  be  necessary, 
due  to  the  delivery  of  this  water. 

On  June  30,  water-right  applications,  numbering 
266,  had  been  executed  on  this  unit,  covering  an  area 
of  approximately  5,600  acres,  and  on  June  27  the 
delivery  of  stored  water  was  commenced  to  the  land 
that  had  signed  water-right  applications  under  the 
Spanish  Fork  East  Bench  Irrigation  &  Manufactur- 
ing Co.,  under  this  unit. 

Lake  Shore  Unit.  The  Lake  Shore  unit  covers  an 
area  of  about  6,000  acres  of  low  land  located  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Spanish  Fork  Eiver  on  the  shore  of 
Utah  Lake.  It  is  irrigated  from  the  Lake  Shore 
Canal,  which  has  a  fair  flood-water  right  in  the 
Spanish  Fork  River.  After  considerable  negotia- 
tions a  contract,  dated  October  12, 1914,  was  entered 
into  with  the  Lake  Shore  Co.,  in  which  they  agreed 
to  deliver  through  their  canal  system  any  water  that 
might  be  sold  from  the  Strawberry  Valley  Project 
to  lands  that  are  irrigated  under  the  Lake  Shore 
Canal,  a  reasonable  charge  to  be  made  for  such  car- 
riage. The  price  per  acre-foot  on  this  unit  is  $45, 
the  same  as  on  the  Spanish  Fork  unit,  with  the  sched- 


324        EEGLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

ule  of  delivery  and  other  conditions  practically  the 
same.  On  June  30,  an  adequate  number  of  water- 
right  applications  had  been  received  on  this  unit, 
covering  an  area  of  approximately  1,500  acres,  and 
the  delivery  of  a  flow  of  8  second-feet  of  storage 
water  was  commenced  on  June  27, 1915. 

Mapleton  Unit.  This  unit  covers  an  area  of  about 
4,500  acres  located  on  the  east  side  of  the  project  on 
the  Mapleton  Bench,  a  large  part  of  the  area  having 
a  partial  water  right  from  Hobble  Creek.  The  land- 
owners submitted  a  petition  stating  that  they  de- 
sired to  purchase  water  for  between  3,000  and  4,000 
acres  of  land,  and  after  considerable  negotiating  a 
form  of  water-right  application  was  approved  sim- 
ilar to  the  one  approved  for  the  Lake  Shore  unit,  but 
on  presenting  the  water-right  application  to  the 
landowners  only  a  small  part  of  the  acreage  repre- 
sented by  the  petition  executed  a  water-right  appli- 
cation. On  March  19  the  committee  submitted  a  pe- 
tition asking  that  the  construction  of  the  Mapleton 
lateral  be  commenced,  but,  after  considering  all 
phases  of  the  matter,  decision  was  reached  that  it 
was  not  advisable  to  undertake  the  construction  of 
the  lateral  until  additional  land  had  been  signed  up 
and  the  conditions  imposed  by  the  Secretary  had 
been  fulfilled.  The  lateral  necessary  to  supply  this 
land  with  water  is  rather  costly,  due  to  the  several 
expensive  structures  necessary  to  bring  it  across  the 
Spanish  Fork  Canyon  and  the  double-track  main  line 
of  the  Denver  &  Eio  Grande  Eailroad. 

High  Line  Unit.  This  has  an  area  of  25,000  acres, 
the  greater  part  of  which  at  present  has  no  water 
right.  This  will  be  irrigated,  a  complete  canal  sys- 


IN  MORMON  LAND  325 

tern  will  be  constructed  by  the  Eeclamation  Service, 
and  on  the  Spanish  Fork  and  Lake  Shore  units, 
where  a  supplemental  supply  will  be  furnished  for  a 
large  acreage,  the  present  canal  system  will  be  used, 
with  such  enlargements  and  additions  as  may  be  nec- 
essary to  be  made  by  the  canal  companies,  to  supply 
additional  land  under  these  systems  with  water. 

Clinton  District.  This  district  is  located  on  a 
branch  of  the  Spanish  Fork  Eiver,  known  as  Thistle 
Creek,  about  two  miles  above  the  U.  S.  Eeclamation 
Service  diversion  dam  on  Spanish  Fork  Eiver. 

Soldier  Fork  District.  This  district  is  located 
along  Soldier  Fork,  a  tributary  of  Spainsh  Fork 
Eiver,  about  fifteen  miles  from  the  U.  S.  Eeclamation 
Service  diversion  dam  on  Spanish  Fork  Eiver. 

Diamond  Fork  District.  This  district  is  located 
along  Diamond  Fork,  a  tributary  of  Spanish  Fork 
Eiver,  about  seven  miles  from  the  U.  S.  Eeclamation 
Service  diversion  dam. 

The  Project  Manager  is  J.  L.  Lytel,  with  office  at 
Provo,  Utah. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

IN    SIGHT   OF   THE    SNOW-CAPPED   " CASCADES." 
THE   OKANOGAN   PROJECT,    WASHINGTON 

Okanogan  County  was  at  one  time  a  part  of  the 
Colville  Indian  Reservation,  in  the  north  central  part 
of  the  state  of  Washington,  and  it  was  established 
as  a  county  in  1887. 

In  1886,  that  portion  of  the  reservation  lying  west 
of  the  Okanogan  and  Columbia  rivers  had  been 
thrown  open  to  settlement.  Flowing  through  the 
lands  was  Salmon  Creek  and  from  it  the  early  set- 
tlers took  water  for  purposes  of  irrigation.  The 
first  ditches  were  small,  irrigating  only  a  few  acres 
for  the  raising  of  corn,  potatoes,  grain,  hay  and 
truck-gardens,  but  they  demonstrated  the  value  of 
irrigation,  and  in  1888,  the  ditches  were  enlarged  and 
others  constructed. 

Owing  to  remoteness  from  markets,  and  because  of 
the  excellent  range  afforded,  stock  raising  was  very 
generally  followed.  The  providing  of  winter  forage 
made  hay  one  of  the  principal  crops  to  be  grown 
on  the  irrigated  tracts.  The  soil  was  found  to  be 
very  fertile,  and  would  produce  from  four  to  five 
tons  of  alfalfa,  per  acre. 

Several  small  orchards  were  planted  about  this 
time,  and  these,  with  a  few  others  planted  later,  have 
demonstrated  the  quantity  and  quality  of  apples  and 
other  fruit  that  can  be  grown  in  the  Okanogan  coun- 
try, and  have  had  much  to  do  with  the  almost  univer- 

326 


THE  SNOW-CAPPED  " CASCADES"    327 

sal  giving  over  of  the  project  to  the  raising  of  fruit 
at  the  present  time. 

As  the  demand  for  hay  increased,  the  irrigated 
tracts  became  larger,  requiring  more  water.  As  a 
result,  in  the  succeeding  few  years  the  normal  flow  of 
Salmon  Creek  was  over-appropriated  and  during  the 
last  of  each  season  a  shortage  occurred. 

Foreseeing  the  litigation  which  was  sure  to  follow 
this  over-appropriation,  and  to  provide  storage  for 
use  during  the  low  water  period,  a  corporation, 
known  as  the  Conconully  Lake  Reservoir  Company, 
composed  of  many  of  the  first  appropriators  from 
Salmon  Creek,  was  organized  on  November  3,  1897, 
under  the  State  laws.  This  company  purchased  or 
obtained  easement  for  the  necessary  rights  of  way 
for  canals  and  reservoirs,  and  by  the  construction 
of  a  small  dam  at  the  outlet  of  Salmon  Lake  (then 
known  as  Conconully  Lake)  were  able  to  store  1,500 
acre-feet  of  water  to  provide  against  the  annual 
shortage  during  the  low  water  period. 

The  source  of  water  is  Salmon  Creek,  heading  in 
the  Cascade  Mountains,  which  has  a  drainage  area  of 
about  140  square  miles.  The  annual  run-off  in  acre- 
feet,  from  1903  to  1915  was  maximum,  56,500 ;  mini- 
mum, 17,350;  mean,  29,118.  The  rainfall  on  the  ir- 
rigable area,  a  six-year  average,  was  12.28  inches, 
though  in  1915  15.98  inches  fell.  The  average  eleva- 
tion is  1,000  feet  above  sea  level,  and  the  temperature 
ranges  from  10°  to  105°  Fahr.  The  length  of  the 
irrigating  season  is  from  May  1  to  September  1,  123 
days. 

When  the  Eeclamation  Act  was  passed  the  Okan- 
ogan  County  Improvement  Club  petitioned  the  Sec- 


328       BECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

retary  of  the  Interior  to  make  this  region  one  of 
the  projects  of  the  Service.  After  investigation  this 
was  done  and  a  plan  of  irrigation  laid  out  which  pro- 
vides for  the  storage  of  water  in  Salmon  Lake  and  in 
Conconully  Eeservoir,  controlled  by  Conconully  Dam 
on  Salmon  Creek,  about  2  miles  below  Conconully, 
Washington,  the  control  of  Salmon  Lake  Eeservoir 
by  a  short  inlet  canal  from  Salmon  Creek  and  con- 
crete outlet  works ;  the  control  of  Conconully  Eeser- 
voir by  means  of  an  outlet  tunnel  discharging  into 
Salmon  Creek  below  the  storage  dam ;  the  diversion 
of  water  from  Salmon  Creek  by  a  dam  about  12  miles 
below  the  reservoir  into  a  canal  system  watering 
lands  in  the  valley  of  Okanogan  Eiver  between  Eiver- 
side  and  Okanogan,  Washington.  A  pumping  plant 
is  also  operated  by  power  generated  on  the  project 
when  the  gravity  supply  of  water  is  not  sufficient. 

Salmon  Lake  is  a  narrow  body  of  water  3%  miles 
long  located  on  a  tributary  of  the  north  fork  of  Sal- 
mon Creek.  It  is  utilized  to  store  water  between  ele- 
vations 2,282  and  2,298  feet  above  sea  level.  An 
inlet  canal  has  been  constructed  from  the  North  Fork 
of  the  Creek  to  the  lake.  The  release  of  water  from 
the  reservoir  is  controlled  by  a  simple  concrete  outlet 
structure,  discharging  into  an  outlet  channel,  which 
delivers  the  water  into  Conconully  Eeservoir,  a  short 
distance  below.  The  area  of  Salmon  Lake  Eeservoir 
is  approximately  200  acres,  and  the  capacity  3,200 
acre-feet. 

Conconully,  the  larger  of  the  reservoirs,  is  located 
at  the  confluence  of  the  North  and  West  Forks  of 
Salmon  Creek,  just  below  the  town  of  Conconully, 
and  was  created  by  building  an  earth  dam  across  the 


h-l    "-5 

^H       O 


x  o 
O  o 


THE  SNOW-CAPPED  "CASCADES"    329 

creek  bed.  The  area  is  approximately  460  acres  and 
the  capacity  13,000  acre-feet.  The  release  of  water 
is  through  a  concrete  lined  tunnel,  discharging  into 
Salmon  Creek,  and  is  controlled  by  two  36-inch  water 
works  gate  valves. 

The  height  of  the  dam  above  the  bed  of  Salmon 
Creek  is  64  feet.  Its  top  length  is  1,010  feet,  and 
bottom  815  feet.  The  dam  was  built  of  mountain- 
side talus,  varying  from  fine  silt  and  sand  through  all 
sizes  of  angular  stones  to  a  cubic  foot.  This  was 
moved  and  put  into  place  by  the  hydraulic  process, 
some  of  the  water  from  the  creek  being  used  to  carry 
the  material  into  the  flumes  and  pipes,  and  other 
water  to  wash  it  into  place.  It  is  regarded  as  an 
ideal  dam.  The  coarse  rock  of  both  slopes  is  proof 
against  attacks  of  wind,  rain,  or  waves,  and  has  no 
tendency  to  slough  or  slide,  and  furnishes  free  and 
safe  outlet  for  any  leakage  or  seepage  through  the 
dam.  The  core  of  fine  material  furnishes  the  neces- 
sary water  tightness,  having  been  thoroughly  con- 
solidated or  packed  by  the  treatment  received. 

The  spillway  has  an  overflow  of  180  feet  long,  and 
is  cut  through  the  rock  forming  the  right  abutment 
of  the  dam. 

The  irrigable  lands  are  part  of  a  series  of  wide 
benches,  which  extend  from  the  foot  of  the  mountains 
to  the  river  in  the  Okanogan  Valley,  from  30  to  40 
miles  above  the  junction  with  the  Columbia  River. 
Practically  all  the  soil  is  light  and  porous,  capable 
of  producing  the  best  of  crops.  Excellent  range  is 
afforded  cattle  by  the  lands  bordering  the  irrigable 
area,  but  as  the  winters  are  severe  it  is  necessary 
to  feed  the  cattle  during  the  time  that  wild  forage  is 


330        RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

unobtainable.  All  the  lands  are  in  private  owner- 
ship and  the  limit  of  land  irrigated  for  one  owner  is 
40  acres. 

For  drawing  water  from  the  reservoir  a  tunnel 
6x6  feet,  partly  lined,  is  provided  in  the  granite 
abutments  at  the  east  end  of  the  dam.  The  normal 
discharge  capacity  is  500  cubic  feet  per  second.  The 
water  when  drawn  out  flows  down  Salmon  Creek 
about  12  miles  to  the  diversion  weir,  which  is  an 
ogee  concrete  structure  with  50-foot  length  of  over- 
flow, which  raises  the  water  4%  feet  into  a  canal 
with  a  capacity  of  110  cubic-feet  per  second. 

Two  miles  below  the  head  of  the  canal  about  50 
second-feet  of  water  is  dropped  110  feet  to  a  lower 
bench,  and  two  miles  further  down  the  upper  canal 
another  drop  of  58  feet  occurs.  These  drops  are 
used  for  developing  power  used  for  pumping  on 
about  1,070  acres  of  the  lower  lands.  The  water 
thus  pumped  is  lifted  from  the  Okanogan  River  and 
supplements  the  supply  available  from  Salmon 
Creek.  Each  of  these  power-plants  develops  187  kil- 
owatts or  250  horse  power  on  the  switchboard,  which 
is  transmitted  about  five  miles  to  the  pumping  plant 
near  Omak.  The  pumping-plant  and  both  power- 
plants  occupy  reinforced  concrete  buildings.  While 
these  plants  undoubtedly  will  remain  idle  more  sea- 
sons than  they  will  be  used,  they  will  be  indispensable 
in  low-water  years. 

A  part  of  the  main  canal  through  rock  is  lined  with 
concrete  for  the  purpose  of  economizing  in  excava- 
tion and  for  preventing  percolation.  A  large  part  of 
the  distribution  system  also  is  lined,  in  the  portions 
selected  for  this  being  those  parts  located  in  sandy 


THE  SNOW-CAPPED  "-CASCADES"    331 

reaches  where  the  seepage  loss  would  be  great  with- 
out the  lining. 

The  rotation  method  of  delivery  of  water  is  fol- 
lowed, the  user  being  allowed  for  seven  days  double 
the  amount  of  water  which  would  be  required  for 
constant  flow,  and  then  no  water  for  the  following 
seven  days.  This  schedule  is  made  reasonably  elas- 
tic to  meet  special  needs,  but  is  adhered  to  as  nearly 
as  practicable  and  works  out  satisfactorily  to  all  con- 
cerned. 

When  work  on  the  project  was  first  begun  the  near- 
est railway  town  was  Wenatchee,  100  miles  away. 
Water  transportation,  however,  could  be  had  45  miles 
away,  but  to  reach  it  settlers  had  to  travel  over  poor 
mountain  roads.  In  1913  the  Great  Northern  Bail- 
way  constructed  a  branch  line  which  reaches  all  the 
towns  of  the  project,  and  thus  affords  an  opportunity 
to  reach  outside  markets.  July  30  of  that  year  saw 
great  rejoicing  when  the  first  carload  of  apricots  was 
shipped  by  the  local  branch  of  the  Fruit  Growers' 
Association.  Later  in  the  season  eight  carloads  of 
apples  were  shipped  together  with  six  cars  of  the 
softer  fruits,  as  peaches,  apricots,  etc.  The  great  de- 
velopment that  the  railway's  coming  has  furthered 
will  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  in  1915  three  hundred 
cars  of  apples,  and  ten  of  smaller  fruits  were  shipped. 
Most  of  these  shipments  go  to  the  Eastern  States 
where  the  fine  quality  of  the  fruits  bring  prices  large 
enough  to  justify  the  heavy  freight  charges. 

It  is  possible  that  before  long  the  short  railway 
gap  that  exists  will  be  closed  so  that  there  will  be  a 
direct  line  from  Oroville  through  the  project  to  Van- 
couver, B.  C. 


332       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

Alfalfa  is  second  only  to  fruit  in  its  productive- 
ness on  this  project.  It  is  of  excellent  quality  and 
brings  good  prices  when  sold,  though  the  major  por- 
tion of  the  crop  is  fed,  mainly,  to  range  cattle. 

The  total  area  of  the  project  including  all  old 
water-right  land  and  the  151  acres  in  the  Town  of 
Okanogan,  is  10,099  acres.  Of  this  total  amount 
there  is  approximately  8,400  acres  under  the  Govern- 
ment canal.  The  rest  of  the  acreage  falls  under  sev- 
eral small  canals  or  ditches  which  divert  from  Sal- 
mon Creek,  either  above  or  below  the  Government  di- 
version. The  headworks  of  all  of  these  private 
ditches  were  controlled  by  the  Service  during  the 
year. 

The  number  of  farms  irrigated  on  the  project  for 
the  year  was  458,  with  an  area  of  7,850  acres.  The 
irrigable  acreage  of  these  farms  is  8,450.  The  three 
towns  contiguous  to  the  project  have  grown,  and  the 
town  of  Okanogan,  situated  at  the  project's  south- 
ern extremity,  now  has  a  population  of  about  1,000 ; 
the  town  of  Omak  situated  near  the  centre  of  the 
project  on  the  east  side,  has  made  some  growth  and 
has  about  400  inhabitants.  The  town  of  Eiverside, 
located  near  the  northern  extremity  of  the  project, 
has  a  population  of  200.  This  growth  of  the  towns 
has  been  aided  very  materially  by  the  Colville  In- 
dian Eeservation  being  thrown  open  for  settlement 
during  the  year  1916.  This  brought  many  new  peo- 
ple into  the  country  and  resulted  in  considerable  ad- 
vertising of  the  project. 

The  towns  of  Omak  and  Okanogan  have  several 
women's  organizations  which  are  striving  toward 
the  betterment  of  social  and  moral  conditions  for  the 


VISTA  FROM  ROUND  TOP  HILL  BACK  OP  WHITE  RANCH 
OKANOGAN  PROJECT,  WASHINGTON 


COLD  SPRINGS  DAM,  RESERVOIR,  AND  OUTLET  TOWER 
IT  MA  TILL  A  PROJECT,  OREGON 


THE  SNOW-CAPPED  "CASCADES"    333 

towns.  The  principal  club,  however,  for  the  women 
of  the  project  is  known  as  the  Country  Club,  to 
which  a  large  majority  of  the  farmers'  wives  belong. 
In  1916  it  erected  a  temporary  club-house,  which  will 
soon  give  way  to  a  fine  and  permanent  structure, 
which  will  be  devoted  to  the  general  welfare  of  the 
women  and  children,  as  well  as  the  men,  of  the 
surrounding  country. 

The  orchards  of  the  project  in  1916  had  a  selling 
price  of  from  $400  to  $500  per  acre,  and  unimproved 
irrigable  land  has  been  bought  within  the  last  two 
years  for  $75  per  acre. 

The  settlers  have  had  some  difficulties  of  their 
own  to  contend  with.  Occasionally  a  hail  storm  or 
frost  damages  the  young  fruit,  and  grasshoppers  are 
not  unknown.  In  1915  fire-blight  made  its  appear- 
ance in  the  orchards,  but  a  thorough  and  systematic 
pruning  out  of  all  the  diseased  wood  has  practically 
obliterated  the  infection. 

To  those  who  enjoy  the  marked  variation  of  sea- 
sons the  climate  of  this  project  is  ideal.  There  is  as 
distinct  variation  between  spring  and  autumn  as 
there  is  between  winter  and  summer.  The  average 
elevation  is  high  enough  for  health  and  comfort, 
the  air  is  pure  and  clear,  partaking  of  the  vivifying 
and  stimulating  qualities  of  both  ocean  and  moun- 
tain, and  the  blue  sky  of  Washington  is  ever  a  de- 
light to  those  used  to  the  grey  skies  of  the  East. 

The  construction  cost  for  the  project  has  been 
fixed  at  $95.00  per  acre,  payable  in  20  years  without 
interest. 

The  present  Project  Manager  is  Calvin  Casteel, 
with  office  at  Okanogan,  Oregon. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

THE   AKID   BELT    OF   EASTERN   WASHINGTON. 
YAKIMA  PROJECT,   WASHINGTON 

The  State  of  Washington,  though  of  compara- 
tively recent  admittance  to  the  Union,  bids  fair  to  be 
one  of  the  foremost  in  its  wealth  producing  possi- 
bilities, and  not  the  least  of  these  is  the  development 
of  its  arid  lands  by  irrigation.  The  climate  is  usu- 
ally mild,  though  in  the  arid  districts  the  tempera- 
ture during  the  summer  is  generally  high,  a  condition 
desirable  for  the  growing  of  crops  on  irrigated  land. 

The  Cascade  Mountains,  extending  from  north  to 
south  across  the  state,  divide  it  into  what  are  known 
as  the  East  and  West  sides.  The  territory  west  of 
the  Cascades,  and  extending  well  down  on  the  east 
slope,  is  heavily  timbered,  with  the  exception  of  those 
portions  which  have  been  logged  off.  Over  this  ter- 
ritory the  rainfall  is  abundant,  the  vegetation  rank, 
and  the  forests  of  giant  fir,  cedar,  spruce  and  hem- 
lock unsurpassed.  It  is  the  natural  moisture  of  this 
region  which  makes  possible  the  irrigation  of  the 
lands  in  the  dryer  portions  of  the  state  mentioned 
below. 

East  of  this  timber  belt  and  in  the  foothills  of  the 
less  elevated  portions  of  the  eastern  slope,  is  a  strip 
of  rough,  rugged  land,  fairly  well  watered  from  win- 
ter snows  and  by  mountain  rains,  which  affords  good 
grazing  for  cattle  and  sheep. 

The  arid  belt  extends  from  the  eastern  foothills  of 

334 


EASTEEN  WASHINGTON  ARID  BELT    335 

the  Cascade  Mountains  to  some  distance  east  of  the 
Columbia  and  Okanogan  rivers,  where  the  great 
wheat-producing  belt  commences,  and  extends  to  the 
Idaho  line.  This  wheat  land  was  originally  covered 
with  bunch  grass,  and,  in  its  native  condition,  af- 
forded most  excellent  range  for  cattle  and  horses. 
Today  it  presents  a  far  different  appearance,  with 
its  growing  towns,  fine  country  homes,  splendid 
schools,  highly  improved  roads,  car  lines,  in  fact,  ev- 
erything indicative  of  prosperity  and  progress. 
The  pioneers  of  twenty  or  more  years  ago,  who  took 
up  homesteads  and  endured  the  hardships  and  de- 
privations of  the  first  lean  years,  are  today  wealthy 
ranchers  with  large  land  holdings,  of  which  the  orig- 
inal homestead  is  but  a  part. 

The  area  included  in  what  is  known  as  the  arid  re- 
gion has  much  the  same  soil  as  that  which  has  proven 
so  productive  in  the  wheat  belt,  but  owing  to  its  loca- 
tion with  reference  to  the  Cascade  Mountains,  re- 
ceives but  little  rainfall  during  the  growing  season, 
and  unless  artificially  watered  is  practically  value- 
less except  for  sheep  range.  It  is,  therefore,  not 
surprising  that  with  the  many  lakes  and  streams  to 
supply  water,  the  irrigation  possibilities  in  Central 
and  Eastern  Washington  have  been  especially  con- 
vincing. Irrigation  by  private  enterprise  has  been 
limited  to  comparatively  small  tracts,  yet  the  total 
area  thus  irrigated  is  not  inconsiderable,  amounting, 
even  as  early  as  1899,  to  approximately  135,000 
acres,  a  large  portion  of  which  was  located  in  Yakima 
and  Kittitas  counties. 

The  Yakima  Eiver  is  the  largest  of  the  streams 
taking  source  in  the  Cascade  Mountains  and  flowing 


336        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

eastward  to  the  Columbia  through  the  arid  section. 
The  project  for  irrigation  of  the  valley  of  the  Ya- 
kima  Eiver,  considered  in  its  entirety,  dwarfs  every 
other  national  reclamation  project.  This  valley  is 
so  vast  in  area,  so  varied  in  agricultural  products,  so 
diversified  in  its  industries,  so  wonderful  in  its  possi- 
bilities, that  a  complete  presentation  would  require 
more  space  than  the  limits  of  this  chapter  allow. 
The  more  important  features  of  the  project  for  the 
watering  of  the  dry  lands  in  the  valley  will  be  con- 
sidered as  fully  as  space  will  permit. 

The  total  length  of  the  valley  is  nearly  200  miles, 
its  width  in  places  15  miles,  and  of  the  land  within  its 
confines  at  least  half  a  million  acres  are  irrigable. 
For  a  great  part  of  its  length,  the  valley  is  narrow, 
almost  to  be  called  a  canyon,  but  jLn  places  it  broad- 
ens, forming  broad,  sheltered  basins.  It  is  the  land 
in  these  fertile  basins  and  on  the  benches  above  that 
affords  such  an  opportunity  for  successful  irrigation. 

The  Yakima  Basin  is  separated  from  the  water- 
shed of  the  Columbia  Kiver  on  the  north-east  by  the 
Yakima  Eidge  and  the  Eattlesnake  Hills,  barren  and 
more  or  less  rugged,  with  an  altitude  of  1,000  to 
1,600  feet.  On  the  south,  it  is  shut  in  by  the  Horse 
Heaven  Hills,  in  Benton  County;  while  to  the  west 
it  extends  back  from  the  river,  with  a  gradual  rise  to 
merge,  at  varying  distances,  with  the  foothills  of  the 
Cascade  Mountains.  The  main  tributary  streams 
come  from  the  west,  being  fed  by  melting  snows  in 
the  mountains.  They  flow  through  minor  valleys  or 
follow  courses  parallel  to  the  numerous  ridges  which 
intercept,  roughly  at  right  angles,  the  general  trend 
of  the  main  valley. 


EASTEEN  WASHINGTON  AEID  BELT    337 

The  water  for  the  irrigation  of  the  Yakima  Project 
is  secured  from  the  Yakima  Eiver  and  its  tributaries, 
which  have  a  drainage  basin  of  3,550  square  miles. 
It  is  estimated  that  with  storage  this  water  supply  is 
sufficient  for  about  576,500  acres  of  land.  The  irri- 
gation plan  of  the  Eeclamation  Service  provides  for 
the  storage  of  the  flood  waters  of  these  streams  in  a 
series  of  five  huge  reservoirs  near  their  headwaters, 
releasing  therefrom  into  the  stream  beds  when  the 
natural  flow  becomes  inadequate  to  the  needs  of  the 
lands  to  be  watered.  The  water  is  diverted  by  dams 
at  various  places  down  the  stream,  which  turn  the 
required  quantities  into  the  canals  of  the  different 
distributing  systems  for  delivery  to  the  land.  Be- 
sides these  five  storage  dams,  the  project  contem- 
plates government  construction  of  five  great  distri- 
bution units,  in  addition  to  which  there  are  about  25 
large  systems  owned  by  private  stock-corporations 
and  probably  as  many  small  ditches  operated  by  in- 
dividuals or  communities. 

The  soil,  generally  speaking,  is  a  volcanic  ash  or 
sandy  loam  with  deep  sub-soil,  this  being  especially 
true  of  the  bench  lands ;  the  lower  lands,  close  to  the 
rivers,  to  a  large  extent,  are  composed  of  gravelly 
sub- soil  covered  to  depths  varying  from  a  few  inches 
to  several  feet  of  sandy  soil.  These  soils  are  all 
very  fertile,  and  with  water  and  cultivation  their 
growing  qualities  are  unsurpassed.  The  elevation 
above  sea  level  of  the  irrigable  lands  ranges  from 
400  feet  at  the  lower  end  of  the  valley  to  1,600  feet 
in  the  vicinity  of  Ellensburg. 

The  temperature  throughout  the  summer  is  usu- 
ally high,  especially  during  July  and  August,  but 


338        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

owing  to  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  the  heat  is 
seldom  oppressive  and  the  nights,  even  in  midsum- 
mer, as  a  rule,  are  agreeably  cool.  The  winters  are 
mild,  the  temperature  seldom  reaching  zero.  The 
average  rainfall  is  considerably  less  than  ten  inches, 
ranging  from  six  inches  at  Kennewick,  in  the  lower 
valley,  to  eleven  inches  at  Ellensburg,  near  the  foot- 
hills. 

The  valley  is  traversed  throughout  its  length  by 
the  main  line  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Eailway,  and 
for  a  portion  of  its  upper  length  by  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee and  Saint  Paul  Eailway.  The  lower  part  of 
the  valley,  including  the  North  Yakima  district,  is 
also  tributary  to  a  branch  of  the  Oregon- Washington 
Eailroad  and  Navigation  Company's  lines.  There 
are  several  small  branches,  including  the  North  Ya- 
kima and  Valley,  (a  subsidiary  of  the  Northern  Pa- 
cific), from  North  Yakima  to  Naches,  Selah  and 
Moxee;  the  Yakima  Valley  Transportation  Com- 
pany's street  car  system  and  interurban  lines;  and 
the  Sunnyside  Branch  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Eail- 
way. 

It  will  not  be  needful  to  present  more  than  the 
briefest  outline  of  the  history  of  the  valley.  The 
first  treaty  with  the  Yakima  Indians — then  in  undis- 
turbed possession — was  made  in  1855.  The  first 
settler  entered  the  valley  in  1861.  In  1865  Yakima 
County  was  created,  portions  of  which  have  since 
been  taken  away  to  make  Kittitas  and  part  of  Ben- 
ton  counties. 

The  beginnings  of  irrigation  date  back  to  as  early 
as  1867,  at  which  time  the  "Nelson  Ditch"  was  con- 
structed. This  ditch,  which  is  still  in  existence,  was 


EASTERN  WASHINGTON  ARID  BELT     339 

very  small,  carrying  about  seven  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond. Even  with  this  small  beginning,  however,  the 
advantages  of  irrigation  were  at  once  apparent,  and 
water  was  appropriated  and  canals  built  from  time 
to  time  until  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of  the  Rec- 
lamation Act  about  121,000  acres  had  been  irri- 
gated. In  1884,  after  seemingly  interminable  de- 
lays, the  Northern  Pacific  Railway  was  built  through 
the  valley,  and  in  1890  commenced  construction  on 
the  first  great  canal  system  in  the  state.  The  total 
length  of  the  main  canal  was  sixty  miles,  with  550 
miles  of  branches  and  laterals,  and  the  area  irrigated 
was  about  forty  thousand  acres.  This  canal  was 
later  enlarged  and  rebuilt  by  the  Reclamation  Serv- 
ice, and  is  now  known  as  "Sunnyside  Unit." 

From  the  coming  of  the  railroad  to  the  passage  of 
the  Reclamation  Act,  in  1902,  a  large  number  of 
canals  were  constructed  with  private  capital,  some 
of  considerable  size,  but  all  under  great  financial 
difficulties,  fierce  litigation  as  to  water  rights,  and 
numerous  other  vicissitudes.  Several  valuable  proj- 
ects were  commenced  by  over-sanguine  owners  and 
some  even  reached  advanced  stages  of  construction, 
only  to  prove  the  financial  ruin  of  their  backers  be- 
fore they  could  be  completed  and  successfully  oper- 
ated. Many  miles  of  expensive  canal  were  con- 
structed, that  have  never  carried  a  drop  of  water; 
acres  of  maps,  plans  and  specifications  were  pre- 
pared to  no  purpose ;  and  scarce  an  old  settler  in  the 
valley  but  has  his  package  of  stock  certificates  in 
some  abandoned  irrigation  scheme. 

Therefore  the  passage  of  the  Reclamation  Act  was 
hailed  as  a  great  boon  by  the  people  of  this  country, 


340       EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

as  it  was  hoped  that  through  its  agency  the  govern- 
ment would  take  over  many  of  their  burdens.  Con- 
sequently, petitions  were  presented  by  land  owners 
asking  that  various  projects  throughout  the  state  be 
investigated  with  a  view  to  their  construction  by 
the  Government.  These  schemes  were  presented  in 
their  most  favourable  aspects,  and  urged  with  every 
method  known  to  the  resourceful  promoter,  so  that 
the  selection  of  the  most  favourable  projects  was 
made  more  difficult  by  the  pressure  brought  to  bear 
upon  every  official  interested.  The  landowners  in 
each  locality  advanced  the  merits  of  their  particular 
scheme  and  cited  disadvantages  of  every  other;  and 
the  matter  was  only  settled  by  making  a  thorough 
enough  field-investigation  of  every  project  advanced 
to  enable  the  engineers  of  the  Service  to  determine 
the  comparative  merits  of  each  scheme. 

In  the  State  of  Washington  five  districts,  ranging 
in  size  from  150,000  to  a  million  or  more  acres,  in 
addition  to  a  considerable  number  of  smaller  areas, 
were  brought  forward  for  consideration,  and,  under 
instructions  from  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  were 
carefully  investigated  to  determine  their  feasibility 
and  probable  cost.  It  was  found  that  while  each 
presented  some  favourable  aspects,  there  were  in 
most  cases  engineering  difficulties  that  would  raise 
the  cost  to  prohibitive  figures,  the  final  choice  set- 
tling on  the  Yakima  Valley  as  offering  the  greatest 
opportunity  at  the  lowest  construction  cost. 

The  first  steps  toward  actual  construction  of  the 
Yakima  Project  were  taken  in  1905,  when  the  engi- 
neers in  local  charge  of  the  work  commenced  on  the 
Tieton  Unit.  At  the  same  time  the  purchase  of  the 


EASTEEN  WASHINGTON  AEID  BELT    341 

Northern  Pacific's  rights  on  the  Sunnyside  Unit  was 
decided  on.  From  that  time  the  activities  of  the 
Service  in  the  valley  have  been  continuous,  and  the 
results  obtained  have  been  such  as  to  justify  the  most 
sanguine  predictions. 

In  the  early  days  every  encouragement  was  given 
to  the  Service,  to  secure  desired  construction,  but  as 
the  work  advanced  many  critics  arose.  Disap- 
pointed contractors,  engineers  who  had  advocated 
rival  schemes,  disgruntled  employes,  and  others 
continually  sought  for  engineering  errors  or  ques- 
tions of  judgment  that  might  be  criticized.  Before 
construction,  owners  eagerly  agreed  to  pay  any  cost 
that  might  be  necessary,  but  later  sales  of  land  were 
made  without  this  point  being  made  clear  to  the  pur- 
chaser, who,  when  the  final  costs  were  assessed,  felt 
that  he  had  a  grievance  against  the  Government  be- 
cause the  costs  were  higher  than  some  real  estate 
dealer  persuaded  him  to  expect ! 

While  it  cannot  be  stated  that  the  work  of  the 
Service  was  perfect,  without  error,  or  that  money 
was  never  spent  in  an  injudicious  manner,  in  all  re- 
spects, yet  most  of  the  criticism  was  without  founda- 
tion, and  a  careful  examination  of  the  facts  shows  an 
enviable  record  of  efficiency  and  economy. 

The  larger  features  of  the  Yakima  Project  have 
been  constructed  by  Government  forces.  This  has 
been  due  to  two  causes — first,  failure  on  the  part  of 
contractors  on  the  principal  features  let  by  contract 
to  make  satisfactory  progress,  necessitating  the  sus- 
pension of  contracts  and  completion  of  work  by  the 
Government;  second,  various  uncertainties  in  con- 
nection with  the  work,  on  account  of  the  necessity  of 


342        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

maintaining  service  through  the  canals  during  the 
time  of  construction. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  economy  resulting  in  a 
larger  way  from  the  permanent  type  of  construction, 
which  has  characterized  the  activities  of  the  Grovern- 
ment.  The  Sunnyside  Unit  has  now  been  operated 
by  the  Reclamation  Service  for  ten  years,  and  the 
Tieton  Unit  for  over  five  years,  and  it  appears  that 
the  annual  charge  necessary  to  maintain  these  two 
systems  in  a  condition  equal  to  that  when  new  will 
be  about  $1  per  acre  and  $1.35  per  acre,  respec- 
tively. At  these  rates  it  is  believed  that  the  systems 
can  be  maintained  indefinitely  without  special  levies 
for  reconstruction  of  any  portion  of  the  system  main- 
tained by  the  Government. 

Under  private  canals  in  the  Yakima  Valley,  where 
all  conditions  are  fully  as  favourable  as  for  the  gov- 
ernment project,  the  original  construction  cost  of 
which  varied  from  $40  to  $75  per  acre,  it  has  been 
found  necessary  within  the  past  two  years  to  recon- 
struct to  a  very  large  extent  the  main  features  of  the 
canal  systems,  and  two  or  three  of  the  larger  pri- 
vate canal  companies  in  the  valley  have  made  ex- 
penditures for  reconstruction  which,  including  inter- 
est, will  cost  the  landowners  from  $50  to  nearly 
$100  per  acre.  In  other  words,  the  cheaply  con- 
structed private  projects  are  now  paying  out  for  re- 
construction more  than  the  entire  first  cost  per  acre 
of  the  Tieton  and  Sunnyside  units  of  the  Yakima 
Project. 

As  to  operation  and  maintenance  costs,  no  private 
project  in  the  valley  is  giving  service  value  for  the 
charge  imposed  equal  to  that  under  the  Government 


DIVERSION  DAM  IN  YAKIMI  RIVER,  HEADGATES,  AND  GATE 

TENDER'S  HOUSE  ON  THE  SUNNYSIDE  CANAL 

YAKIMA  PROJECT,  WASHINGTON 


MAIN  TIETON  CANAL,  TIETON  CANYON,  600  FEET  ABOVE  THE 

STREAM 

YAKIMA  PROJECT,  WASHINGTON 


EASTEEN  WASHINGTON  AEID  BELT    343 

project.  Under  private  projects  the  almost  univer- 
sal practice  is  to  deliver  water  at  the  bank  of  the 
main  canal,  at  which  point  all  obligations  of  the 
management  cease.  Under  the  Government  project, 
distributaries  have  been  built  to  each  farm  unit,  and 
the  water  is  actually  delivered  by  Government  em- 
ployes to  every  landowner. 

The  flow  of  water  in  the  mountain  streams  is 
greatest  at  the  time  of  melting  snow  in  the  spring, 
during  the  months  of  February  to  June,  but  by  the 
latter  month  the  snow  has  practically  disappeared 
from  all  but  the  most  lofty  peaks,  and  there  being  no 
rainfall  in  this  region  during  the  summer,  the  amount 
of  water  flowing  in  the  streams  decreases,  until 
many  of  the  smaller  water-courses  dry  up  entirely, 
and  even  the  largest  of  the  rivers  are  greatly  re- 
duced. 

Most  of  the  crops  grown  in  this  region  require 
little  or  no  water  during  the  spring  months.  In 
many  cases  snow  and  rain  fall  on  the  lands  during 
the  winter,  and  by  careful  cultivation  enough  mois- 
ture can  be  conserved  to  start  the  crop  and  carry  it 
for  several  weeks,  but  after  that  time,  to  secure 
proper  growth,  water  must  be  applied  every  two  to 
four  weeks  throughout  the  entire  growing  season. 
The  frequency  of  irrigation  depends  upon  circum- 
stances of  crop,  soil,  location,  and  many  other  con- 
ditions. But  it  may  safely  be  stated  that  water  must 
be  applied  at  least  once  in  June,  twice  in  July,  twice 
in  August,  and  probably  once  in  September.  Thus 
we  have  high  water  in  the  streams  during  the  spring' 
when  there  is  little  need,  and  great  need  of  irriga- 
tion in  the  summer  when  the  water  supply  is  low. 


344       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

When  the  Service  entered  the  valley  this  con- 
dition was  already  very  bad  for  not  only  was  the 
entire  available  summer  flow  used,  but  claims  for 
many  times  this  amount  were  being  contested,  and  it 
was  apparent  that  in  order  to  irrigate  additional 
lands,  some  of  the  early  spring  run-off  must  be  held 
for  use  during  the  summer  months.  This  idea,  then, 
was  the  forerunner  of  the  series  of  storage  dams 
above  mentioned,  the  building  of  which  would  alone 
have  proved  the  great  value  of  the  Eeclamation  Act 
to  the  country. 

Investigation  of  storage  possibilities  in  the  Yakima 
Valley  revealed  the  presence  of  three  large  lakes  at 
the  head  of  the  main  river,  and  two  other  good  sites 
on  main  branches,  so  the  project  includes  the  build- 
ing of  five  dams  to  increase  the  holding  capacity  of 
these  lakes  and  insure  the  valley  against  a  summer 
water  shortage. 

Three  of  these  dams  have  now  been  completed  and 
a  fourth  is  under  construction,  securing  the  irrigator 
against  water  famine  in  the  dryest  season.  The 
water  supply  is  now,  in  fact,  considerably  in  advance 
of  present  distribution  development,  but  future  plans 
for  the  Indian  Eeservation  contemplate  immediate 
use  of  this  extra  water. 

The  land-seeker  has  a  wide  choice  of  climates 
within  the  Yakima  Valley,  for  different  conditions 
prevail  in  each  district.  The  Kittitas  Basin,  nearest 
the  headwaters  of  the  river  and  highest  in  altitude, 
has  a  temperature  ten  to  fifteen  degrees  cooler  than 
in  the  vicinity  of  North  Yakima.  This  district  raises 
large  crops  of  hay  and  potatoes  for  the  Alaska  mar- 
kets ;  it  is  the  home  of  the  alfalfa  grower,  the  general 


EASTEEN  WASHINGTON  AEID  BELT    345 

farmer,  the  dairyman;  and  while  fine  apples  are 
grown  here,  fruit  is  not  the  main  crop.  The  princi- 
pal town  of  this  district  is  Ellensburg,  county  seat, 
site  of  the  State  Normal  School,  and  centre  for  two 
railroads.  The  markets  of  Alaska  and  the  Orient 
are  within  easy  reach  through  the  cities  of  Puget 
Sound,  and  opportunities  for  the  future  of  this  sec- 
tion are  very  bright.  Irrigation  is  secured  by  a 
number  of  small  canals,  although  plans  have  been 
made  for  a  large  system,  to  be  built  under  either 
the  Eeclamation  Service  or  the  District  system  to 
irrigate  nearly  100,000  acres  and  furnish  a  more  de- 
pendable water  supply.  This  new  system  will  un- 
doubtedly be  built  in  the  near  future,  and  will  add 
greatly  to  the  value  of  the  lands  thereabout. 

The  centre  of  interest  in  the  Yakima  Valley  is  the 
rich  district  surrounding  the  city  of  North  Yakima. 
This  belt,  with  its  warm  summers,  mild  winters,  and 
fertile  soil,  is  known  throughout  the  world  for  the 
perfection  of  its  fruit,  of  which  the  apple  is  the 
most  important.  The  lands  in  the  main  valley  are 
all  fully  developed,  mostly  in  small  tracts  of  less  than 
twenty  acres,  and  can  be  secured  by  the  newcomer 
only  at  very  high  figures.  The  fruit  business  is, 
however,  a  precarious  one,  not  to  be  followed  by  an 
inexperienced  man  with  much  hope  of  immediate 
success.  It  also  requires  considerable  capital,  but 
when  intelligently  handled  the  returns  are  often 
marvellous. 

This  district  was  quite  well  developed  before  the 
advent  of  the  Service  in  the  valley.  It  is  served  by 
a  number  of  large  irrigation  systems,  mostly  owned 
by  mutual  stock  companies.  The  common  practice 


346        RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

is  that  the  ownership  of  the  land  and  of  the  stock 
in  the  irrigation  company  shall  be  inseparable,  each 
share  of  stock  entitling  the  holder  to  a  certain 
amount  of  water  for  his  land.  Since  the  building  of 
the  government  storage  dams,  these  private  systems 
are  assured  of  plenty  of  water. 

There  are  several  outlying  districts,  tributary  to 
the  main  valley,  such  as  Wide  Hollow,  Selah  and 
Moxee  Valleys.  Originally  planted  to  general  crops, 
hay,  grain,  potatoes  and  pasturage,  many  of  these 
lands  have  lately  been  set  to  orchards.  Success  does 
not  always  follow  these  ventures,  as  some  variation 
in  soil,  temperature,  or  air  drainage  may  make  the 
location  unsuitable  for  fruit  growing,  but  in  most 
cases  good  results  follow.  These  lands,  however, 
and  the  dry  lands  beyond  them,  are  still  the  home  of 
the  ' i  Big  Yakima  Potato, ' '  always  a  profitable  crop. 

The  Tieton  Unit  of  the  Yakima  Project  occupies 
bench  lands  to  the  west  of  the  main  Yakima  Basin, 
and  about  two  hundred  feet  higher  in  elevation,  and 
previous  to  the  advent  of  the  Service,  the  accessibil- 
ity of  this  district,  its  rich  soil,  pleasant  location  and 
apparent  ease  of  irrigation  made  it  the  coveted  spot 
of  the  entire  valley.  Lower  ditches,  irrigating  ad- 
jacent lands,  had  been  in  successful  operation  for 
many  years,  and  the  results  stimulated  speculators 
to  try  to  reclaim  the  higher  lands.  Many  canals 
were  projected,  some  few  located  on  the  ground,  and 
construction  actually  commenced  on  at  least  one,  but 
so  many  difficulties  arose  in  securing  a  sufficient  sup- 
ply of  water  and  getting  it  on  the  ground,  as  well  as 
in  financing  the  project,  that  these  attempts  all 
failed. 


EASTEEN  WASHINGTON  AEID  BELT    347 

The  Tieton  Unit  as  finally  decided  upon  by  the 
Eeclamation  Service  engineers  irrigates  about  34,000 
acres  of  these  bench  lands,  using  the  waters  of  the 
Tieton  Eiver,  which  has  a  splendid  all-the-year  flow, 
in  conjunction  with  those  of  Cowiche  Creek,  smaller 
and  less  dependable.  To  bring  water  to  the  land  at 
a  sufficient  elevation,  it  was  necessary  to  divert  the 
waters  of  the  Tieton  Eiver,  several  miles  above  its 
mouth,  carry  them  in  a  flume  high  on  one  bank  of  the 
river,  and,  crossing  the  divide  by  tunnel,  pour  them 
into  Cowiche  Creek.  The  combined  waters  follow 
the  natural  bed  of  this  stream  until  diverted  at  dif- 
ferent levels  into  the  several  branch  canals  for  dis- 
tribution to  the  land. 

The  building  of  the  main  flume  and  tunnels  was 
difficult,  both  because  of  the  natural  obstacles  of  the 
country  and  the  inaccessibility  of  the  location.  For 
these  reasons,  and  because  of  the  comparatively 
small  acreage  watered,  the  construction  cost  per  acre 
was  high,  but  the  natural  advantages  of  the  land  are 
so  great  that  the  cost  of  water  is  fully  justified. 
Many  hardships  were  caused  among  the  purchasers 
of  land  on  the  project  however,  by  the  exorbitant 
prices  at  which  private  lands  were  sold,  for  the  ex- 
cessive demands  for  principal  and  interest  payments 
soon  became  irksome  to  the  settler  who  had  not  yet 
brought  his  land  to  full  production.  This  condition 
is  rapidly  passing  now,  and  the  settler,  aided  by  the 
passage  of  the  act  which  gives  him  twenty  years 
without  interest  in  which  to  pay  for  the  water,  and 
by  the  increasing  value  of  his  crops,  has  now  reached 
a  much  better  financial  condition. 

The  elevation  of  the  lands  on  this  part  of  the 


348        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

project  varies  from  1300  to  2100  feet  above  sea  level; 
winters  are  mild,  with  a  few  inches  of  snowfall,  the 
temperature  seldom  dropping  as  low  as  15°  above 
zero.  The  growing  season  is  long  and  warm, 
assuring  abundant  growth,  but  though  the  day  tem- 
perature will  often  range  in  the  nineties,  the  nights 
are  pleasant  with  cooling  breezes  from  the  nearby 
mountains.  The  soil  is  volcanic  ash,  exceedingly 
fertile  and  particularly  adapted  to  fruit  growing. 
More  than  8,000  acres  have  been  planted  to  fruit 
trees,  and  as  the  project  is  new  and  the  orchards  not 
yet  in  full  bearing,  the  custom  of  raising  crops  of 
grain,  hay  or  vegetables  between  the  tree  rows  is  gen- 
erally practised.  There  is  a  growing  interest  in  di- 
versified farming,  shown  by  such  activities  as  dairy- 
ing, hog  raising,  and  careful  crop  rotation.  Hops 
are  a  valuable  crop,  and  potatoes  and  onions  grow 
to  perfection. 

The  project  is  now  well  settled,  no  desirable 
homestead  lands  now  remaining,  but  there  are  still 
good  opportunities  for  purchase  or  lease,  from  pri- 
vate owners  who  are  unable  to  develop  their  lands  or 
cannot  give  them  proper  attention. 

The  Sunnyside  Unit,  in  the  next  basin  down  the 
valley,  has  a  still  warmer  climate.  The  lands  under 
this  unit  consist  of  102,824  acres  lying  in  Benton  and 
Yakima  counties.  The  irrigation  system,  originally 
constructed  by  a  private  organization  and  developed 
by  the  Northern  Pacific  Eailroad,  was  purchased  by 
the  Government  and  has  been  completely  rebuilt  and 
greatly  enlarged.  The  average  elevation  of  the 
lands  is  800  feet  above  sea  level,  and  the  temperature 
ranges  from  20°  to  110°  above  zero.  The  soil  is 


II 


H      , 


02  P-l 


EASTEKN  WASHINGTON  ARID  BELT    349 

deep  volcanic  ash  and  gravel,  easily  tilled  and  re- 
sponding readily  to  irrigation.  The  principal  prod- 
ucts are  forage,  fruits  and  vegetables,  dairy  and 
poultry  products.  Growers  of  peaches  and  similar 
soft  fruits  meet  with  phenomenal  success  in  this  part 
of  the  valley,  the  climate  being  ideal  for  this  crop. 
The  markets  are  Washington  cities,  Alaska,  and  in 
the  case  of  fruits  the  entire  country  and  foreign 
markets. 

Within  the  project  limits  are  the  following  towns, 
situated  along  the  two  lines  of  railroad :  Grandview, 
Sunnyside,  Outlook,  Granger,  Zillah,  Mabton,  Byron 
and  Prosser. 

The  cost  of  water  right  is  $52  per  acre.  In  1916, 
59,449  acres  were  cropped,  the  total  crop  yield 
amounting  to  $4,341,940,  an  average  return  of  $73  per 
acre.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  the  gross  returns 
for  the  project  for  the  year  of  1916  and  for  seven 
years  previous  annually  exceeded  the  whole  cost  of 
construction  of  the  project.  The  total  acreage  re- 
ceiving water  in  1916  was  73,000,  more  than  13,000 
acres  being  in  young  orchards,  young  alfalfa,  etc. 
Excellent  raw  land  is  to  be  had  at  $50  to  $100  per 
acre,  water  right  unpaid,  and  some  rougher  lands 
with  paid-up  water  rights  may  be  had  at  from  $60  to 
$100  per  acre.  Improved  land  adapted  to  general 
farming  brings  from  $150  to  $200  per  acre,  and  choice 
bearing  orchards  may  be  had  at  $300  to  $500  per 
acre.  There  are  splendid  openings  for  by-product 
plants  of  various  types,  evaporators,  canneries, 
creameries,  cider,  vinegar,  alcohol  and  starch  fac- 
tories. Livestock  and  commission  brokers  are 
needed  to  ship  in  and  distribute  among  the  farmers 


350        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

in  the  fall  cattle  and  sheep  to  be  fattened  for  mar- 
ket, and  to  purchase  and  ship  out  in  car  lots  the  stock 
thus  fattened ;  also  to  handle  the  increasing  number 
of  hogs  and  other  animals. 

Little  can  be  said  at  this  time  in  regard  to  oppor- 
tunities on  the  Yakima  Indian  Reservation,  across 
the  river  from  the  Sunnyside  Unit.  There  is  a 
large  area  of  very  fruitful  land  in  this  reservation 
and  arrangements  for  its  more  profitable  use  will  no 
doubt  be  made  in  the  near  future.  It  is  planned 
eventually  to  irrigate  120,000  acres  of  land  by  ditches 
to  be  constructed  in  conjunction  with  the  Indian 
Service,  and  much  of  this  land  will  be  sold  off  by  the 
Indians  for  general  settlement.  Water  for  this  irri- 
gation is  now  available  in  storage  dams  already  con- 
structed. 

Farther  down  the  river,  the  irrigated  lands  con- 
tinue to  the  junction  with  the  Columbia,  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  towns  of  Kennewick,  Pasco  and  Richland. 
The  greater  warmth  of  this  locality  make  it  a  marvel- 
lous producer  of  canteloupes,  peaches,  strawberries, 
and  early  fruits  and  vegetables  of  all  sorts.  Much  of 
the  surrounding  lands  are  included  in  the  contem- 
plated Benton  High  Line  Project,  considered  for 
later  development.  No  work  has  yet  been  done  in 
this  district  by  the  Reclamation  Service,  although 
many  private  canals  are  in  use,  taking  water  from 
both  the  Yakima  and  Columbia  rivers. 

The  present  Project  Manager  is  R.  K.  Tiffany, 
with  office  at  North  Yakima,  Washington. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

IN    THE    BIG    HOKN     BASIN.       THE     SHOSHONE    PKOJECT, 

WYOMING 

The  world  is  familiar  with  the  charms,  fascina- 
tions, allurements,  and  unique  wonders  of  the  Yel- 
lowstone National  Park.  Its  bubbling  mud  geysers, 
hot  water  geysers,  gorgeously  coloured  terraces  and 
rainbow  hued  pools  and  lakes  are  world-renowned, 
while  "Old  Faithful"  is  almost  as  well  known  as 
Niagara  or  the  Mammoth  Cave  of  Kentucky. 
Boaming  in  this  region  for  countless  centuries  have 
been  various  tribes  of  Indians.  One  of  these  was 
known  as  the  Shoshone — pronounced  in  three  sylla- 
bles, sho-sho-nee,  with  emphasis  on  the  second  syl- 
lable— but  many  who  know  the  name  and  are  fa- 
miliar with  the  Indians,  do  not  know  the  peculiar 
significance  of  the  term.  I  do  not  give  this  as  as- 
certained fact,  for  Dr.  F.  W.  Hodge,  in  his  compre- 
hensive Handbook  of  American  Indians  makes  no 
reference  to  it,  but  it  is  stated  that  the  name  orig- 
inated as  follows :  One  band  of  this  tribe  resided  in 
a  beautiful  and  secluded  valley,  some  75  miles  to  the 
east  of  the  Yellowstone  National  Park,  through 
which  ran  a  charmingly  pure  and  attractive  river. 
Near  its  headwaters  several  hot  springs  and  geysers 
were  located.  Some  of  these  were  sulphur  and 
other  supposedly  healthful  waters,  which,  however, 
"smelled  to  high  heaven. "  But  they  were  in  great 
repute  among  the  tribes  of  the  region,  who  came  and 

351 


352        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

drank  of  their  waters,  and  bathed  in  them,  when  sick, 
and  went  away  full  of  gratitude  to  the  "  Powers 
Above "  as  well  as  the  "  Powers  Below "  who  thus 
gave  them  such  tokens  of  their  goodness.  On  ac- 
count of  their  strong  odours  these  springs  and  gey- 
sers were  called  the  "  Shoshone, ' '  the  stinking  waters 
— and  the  river  soon  gained  the  same  name,  and 
when  other  and  far  away  tribes  spoke  of  the  resi- 
dent Indians,  they  called  them  also,  the  Shoshone. 
When,  therefore,  the  pioneers  of  the  West  came  into 
the  land  and  asked  the  name  of  the  river  and  were 
told,  together  with  its  significance,  they  with  that 
direct  and  vigorous  speech  for  which  they  will  never 
be  forgotten,  openly  designated  the  stream  as  the 
Stinking  Eiver,  by  which  name  it  is  still  known  on 
some  of  the  United  States  maps.  The  Indians  were 
proud  of  their  health-giving  springs  and  geysers, 
and  of  their  river,  and  gladly  accepted  the  name  for 
themselves,  by  which  they  are  known  to  this  day. 
But  the  Wyoming  legislature,  by  statute,  changed 
the  name  to  Shoshone  Eiver,  although  the  sulphu- 
retted hydrogen  gases  in  the  "stinking  river"  still 
rise  to  vex  the  nostrils.  And  the  same  name  has 
been  applied  to  one  of  the  important  projects  of  the 
Eeclamation  Service.  This  project  contains  a  total 
of  about  147,516  acres  divided  into  four  divisions  as 
follows:  Garland,  43,616  acres;  Frannie,  41,000 
acres;  Willwood,  19,600  acres;  Highline,  43,300 
acres.  Of  these,  the  Garland  Division  is  the  only 
one  at  present  open  to  homestead  entry.  This  divi- 
sion contains  a  total  of  650  farm  units,  ranging  in 
size  from  40  to  about  80  acres,  and  of  this  number 
only  10  now  remain  unentered. 


IN  THE  BIG  HOEN  BASIN  353 

The  major  portion  of  the  lands  are  light  sandy 
and  clay  loams,  and  the  principal  products  are  al- 
falfa, grain,  sugar  beets,  vegetables,  and  small  ber- 
ries. Cattle  and  hogs  also  thrive  well. 

These  are  the  lands  that  the  Shoshone  Project  is 
designed  to  serve.  The  source  of  water-supply  is 
the  Shoshone  Eiver,  which  has  a  drainage  area  of 
1,380  square  miles.  The  annual  run-off  between 
1903  and  1914  in  acre-feet  was,  maximum,  1,420,000 ; 
minimum,  913,150 ;  mean,  1,151,292. 

In  1916  the  acreage  the  Service  was  prepared  to 
serve  was  42,665  acres.  The  length  of  the  irrigat- 
ing season  is  from  April  20  to  October  20,  180  days. 
The  average  elevation  of  the  irrigable  area  is  4,500 
feet  above  sea  level,  and  the  average  annual  rainfall, 
for  the  years  1907-1914,  5.58  inches.  The  tempera- 
ture ranges  from  31°  Fahr.  below  zero,  to  101° 
Fahr.,  though  it  is  only  rarely  and  for  a  short  time 
it  reaches  these  extremes.  Every  one  familiar  with 
the  climate,  winter  or  summer,  knows  that  it  is 
healthful  and  enjoyable,  though  it  certainly  grows 
cold  in  winter  and  warm  in  summer.  The  high  ele- 
vation, however,  destroys  humidity,  and  sunstroke 
and  heat  prostrations  are  unknown.  The  valley, 
being  completely  surrounded  by  mountain  ranges 
seldom  experiences  what  might  be  called  a  severe 
storm,  and  the  days  during  the  summer,  no  matter 
how  high  the  thermometer  ranges,  are  never  op- 
pressive or  sultry,  and  the  nights  are  of  that  clear, 
cool  character,  that  soothes  and  yet  vivifies. 

When  one  recalls  that  he  is  within  a  day's  horse- 
back ride,  or  buggy  drive,  of  some  of  the  finest  big 
game  hunting  yet  to  be  had  on  the  American  Conti- 


354       EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

nent,  and  that  he  is  within  an  easy  day's  automo- 
bile ride  of  the  wonders  of  the  Yellowstone  he  feels 
that  he  has  a  playground  close  art  hand  in  which  he 
may  find  relief  from  the  most  arduous  of  labours. 
A  week's  camping-out  trip  is  an  ideal  vacation  any- 
where in  tree-clad  mountains,  but  to  be  able  to  take 
one 's  family  and  enter  the  incomparable  park  of  the 
geysers  and  paint-pots,  obsidian  cliff  and  glorious 
terraces  found  in  the  Yellowstone,  is  to  be  favoured 
above  ordinary  mortals.  Good  roads  are  found  on 
every  hand  on  the  project,  and  in  the  Yellowstone 
National  Park  the  roads  are  kept  in  perfect  condi- 
tion by  the  Interior  Department. 

The  water  used  for  irrigating  this  project  is  di- 
verted from  the  Shoshone  Eiver,  which  is  fed  by 
streams  having  their  headwaters  in  the  Yellowstone 
National  Park  at  altitudes  between  7,000  and  10,000 
feet.  This  river  rises  in  the  interior  of  "Wyoming 
and  runs  northeasterly  into  the  Big  Horn.  About 
60  miles  from  its  head  it  emerges  from  the  moun- 
tains into  a  small  valley,  where  it  is  joined  by  its 
principal  tributary,  the  South  Fork,  and  then  cuts 
through  an  abrupt  granite  spur,  beyond  which  the 
country  opens  out  into  the  form  of  a  terraced  plain, 
through  which  a  canyon  conducts  the  river  on  its 
way.  The  geological  indications  are  clear  that 
many  centuries  of  centuries  ago,  a  few  miles  above 
this  plain,  there  existed  a  vast  and  beautiful  lake, 
fed  by  springs  from  the  snow  and  glacial  fountains 
of  the  mountains  that  surrounded  it.  Between  it 
and  the  valley  a  range  of  lofty  mountains  inter- 
vened. When  the  lake  overtopped  its  banks  the 
overflow,  passing  through  some  cleft  or  crevice  in 


SHOSHONE  DAM 
SHOSHONE  PROJECT,  WYOMING 


IN  THE  BIG  HOEN  BASIN  355 

the  mountain  range,  during  centuries  of  time  slowly 
chiseled  and  carved  out  a  canyon  eight  miles  long 
and  hundreds  of  feet  deep.  Little  by  little  the  vol- 
ume of  water  in  the  lake  was  lowered  and  the  canyon 
became  deeper  and  wider.  When  civilized  man  came 
upon  the  scene  science  and  skill  were  called  upon 
by  imagination  which  said:  " Build  a  gigantic  dam 
in  that  gorge,  and  restore  to  the  face  of  nature  the 
exquisite  lake  that,  centuries  ago,  she  lost."  This 
was  part  of  the  work  the  engineers  of  the  Reclama- 
tion Service  set  themselves.  In  addition,  they  con- 
templated the  diversion  of  water  from  the  Shoshone 
River  by  a  dam  at  Corbett,  about  16  miles  below 
the  reservoir,  building  a  tunnel  which  should  convey 
the  water  into  a  canal  system  supplying  the  lands 
on  the  north  side  of  the  river  in  the  vicinity  of  Rals- 
ton, Powell,  Garland,  Mantua,  and  Frannie.  They 
also  planned  to  divert  water  into  the  Willwood  Canal 
for  the  irrigation  of  lands  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Shoshone  River;  and  the  diversion  into  the  north 
side  High  Line  from  the  Shoshone  Dam  for  the  irri- 
gation of  lands  lying  on  the  north  side  of  the  Sho- 
shone River  above  the  Garland  Canal  system  and 
extending  from  the  lower  end  of  the  Shoshone  Can- 
yon, near  Cody,  to  the  divide  between  the  Shoshone 
River  and  Clarks  Fork  drainage. 

While  in  the  pioneer  days  successful  irrigation 
was  carried  on  from  the  river,  the  natural  flow  was 
insufficient  for  the  vast  area  still  untouched.  Any 
considerable  enlargement  of  the  irrigable  area  was 
possible,  or  at  least  practicable,  only  when  adequate 
storage  facilities  had  been  provided.  It  was  this 
that  led  to  the  erection  of  the  dam  in  Shoshone  Can- 


356       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

yon.  The  work  was  difficult  and  dangerous.  Men 
were  lowered  into  the  gorge,  and  with  ropes  around 
their  bodies  did  the  necessary  drilling  and  blasting 
on  the  walls,  which  are  hundreds  of  feet  high. 

Before  work  could  be  begun  on  the  structure  it- 
self it  was  necessary  for  the  Service  to  build  a 
rough  trail,  8  miles  long,  which  it  afterwards  devel- 
oped into  a  fine  wagon-road,  for  the  conveyance  of 
drills,  hammers,  shovels,  powder,  and  all  the  needful 
supplies  for  an  active,  busy,  bustling  camp.  Two 
tunnels  were  built  for  the  road  between  Cody  and 
the  dam-site,  and  the  site  itself  was  passed  by  a 
tunnel  above  the  left  abutment.  This  road  was  con- 
tinued westward  up  the  North  Fork  of  the  Shoshone 
Eiver  to  serve  as  a  road  to  Yellowstone  Park  and  to 
replace  the  road  formerly  used  and  submerged  by 
the  reservoir.  The  precipitous  location  necessitated 
several  tunnels  on  this  road  extension. 

The  design  of  the  Shoshone  Dam  is  closely  related 
to  that  of  the  Pathfinder  Dam  on  the  North  Platte 
Project,  both  being  high  structures  in  narrow  gran- 
ite gorges.  It  is  the  result  of  studies  made  by  John 
H.  Quinton  and  George  Y.  Wisner,  and  is  a  com- 
promise of  different  plans,  finally  formulated  by  a 
board  of  engineers  appointed  for  the  purpose. 

It  has  a  top  thickness  of  10  feet,  with  a  batter  to 
stream-bed  of  15  per  cent  on  the  reservoir  face,  and 
of  25  per  cent  on  the  down-stream  face.  Both  faces 
are  made  vertical  below  stream-bed.  The  axis  is 
curved  to  a  radius  of  150  feet,  forming  an  arch  upon 
which  the  dam  depends  for  stability.  It  is  of  con- 
crete, made  of  sand  and  gravel  of  good,  sound 
granite.  Eocks  weighing  from  25  to  200  pounds 


IN  THE  BIG  HOEN  BASIN  357 

are  embedded  to  at  least  25  per  cent  of  the  total 
volume. 

A  tunnel,  500  feet  in  length,  10  feet  square  in  sec- 
tion, was  provided  through  the  right  abutment  for 
the  primary  purpose  of  diverting  the  river  during 
construction,  and  afterward  employed  for  drawing 
water  from  the  reservoir.  Another  tunnel,  20  feet 
square,  on  a  ten  per  cent  grade,  entered  by  a  con- 
crete lip  west  of  the  dam,  was  designed  to  serve  as  a 
spillway. 

Work  was  begun  by  contract  in  October,  1905. 
The  diversion  tunnel  was  excavated,  and  prepara- 
tions were  made  for  diverting  the  river  into  it  by 
building  a  temporary  diversion  dam  and  a  wooden 
flume  to  connect  this  dam  with  the  tunnel.  In  May, 
1906,  work  was  stopped  by  high  water,  and  on  June 
13  the  largest  flood  of  the  season  brought  down 
a  vast  number  of  heavy  saw-logs  which  greatly  in- 
jured the  temporary  dam  and  destroyed  the  flume. 
This  practically  ruined  the  contractor,  and  the  work 
was  completed  the  following  year  by  a  new  company. 
But  again,  this  time  in  July,  came  a  flood  which 
reached  a  discharge  of  14,000  cubic  feet  per  second, 
and,  breaking  a  saw-log  boom  some  miles  above,  re- 
leased a  number  of  logs  which  came  down  like  bat- 
tering rams  and  wrecked  the  temporary  dam  a  sec- 
ond time. 

At  the  subsidence  of  the  flood  the  temporary  dam 
was  rebuilt  and  concreting  in  the  base  of  the  per- 
manent dam  was  begun  March  30,  1908,  but  on  April 
11  the  pit  was  flooded  by  a  freshet  and  work  again 
stopped.  Again  in  May  the  flood-period  began  in 
good  earnest  and  work  ceased  entirely  until  August, 


358        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

when  it  was  found  that  the  foundation  pit  had  been 
filled  with  river  gravel,  sand,  and  mud.  Again  it 
was  excavated,  a  month  being  required  to  accomplish 
the  task,  and  concreting  was  begun  again  and  car- 
ried on  so  vigorously  that  by  the  end  of  November 
the  entire  base  of  the  dam  was  well  above  the  river- 
bed. The  winter  caused  another  delay.  March, 
1909,  saw  work  resumed,  and  when  the  usual  sum- 
mer floods  came  they  poured  to  a  maximum  depth  of 
seventeen  feet  over  the  dam  without  causing  any 
injury. 

Concreting  was  resumed  Sept.  1,  1909,  and  con- 
tinued with  various  delays  until  January  16,  1910, 
which  saw  its  completion.  This  winter  was  of  such 
unusual  severity  that  it  was  necessary  to  protect  the 
concrete  from  frost  by  covering  it  with  a  huge  tent 
which  was  heated  with  a  system  of  steam  pipes. 
These  were  indispensable,  but  greatly  hampered  the 
work  and  materially  added  to  the  expense. 

All  of  these  difficulties,  together  with  the  ex- 
tremely contracted  room  for  operations  in  the  nar- 
row gorge,  the  great  depth  to  foundation,  and  the 
large  and  fluctuating  volume  of  water  to  be  handled, 
combined  to  make  the  construction  of  the  Shoshone 
Dam  hazardous  and  expensive. 

The  lowest  outlet  from  the  Shoshone  Reservoir 
consists  of  two  cast-iron  pipes,  each  42  inches  in 
diameter,  laid  radially  through  the  dam,  imbedded 
in  the  concrete  about  the  low  water  elevation  of  the 
river. 

Each  project  of  the  Service  presented  to  the  engi- 
neers its  own  problems  for  solution.  We  have  al- 
ready seen  some  of  those  met  and  overcome  in  the 


IN  THE  BIG  HOBN  BASIN  359 

building  of  the  Shoshone  Dam.  In  the  planning  of 
the  necessary  distribution  works  the  problem  to  be 
met  was  caused  by  the  peculiar  ' '  lay  of  the  land ' '  to 
be  irrigated.  The  Shoshone  Valley  consists  of  a 
series  of  terraces  rising  higher  and  higher  above  the 
bed  of  the  river,  which  flows  in  a  canyon,  cut  in  the 
gravels  which  form  the  terraces.  Any  diversion 
from  the  river,  therefore,  must  be  either  by  means 
of  a  high  dam  or  a  long  tunnel  built  on  a  gradient 
less  than  the  general  slope  of  the  benches.  There 
being  no  suitable  site  for  a  high  dam  at  the  proper 
location,  the  tunnel  method  was  the  one  adopted. 

Water  released  from  the  Shoshone  Reservoir 
flows  down  the  river  sixteen  miles  to  the  Corbett  Di- 
version Dam,  where  it  is  taken  into  a  tunnel  about 
three  miles  in  length,  which  emerges  into  the  Gar- 
land Canal.  This  dam  is  of  hollow  reinforced  con- 
crete, consisting  of  an  inclined  deck  resting  on  but- 
tresses. Its  total  height,  including  a  two-feet  con- 
crete platform,  is  eighteen  feet,  and  its  length  be- 
tween abutments  400  feet.  The  right  abutment 
joins  an  embankment  450  feet  in  length,  reaching  to 
the  bluff  and  standing  eight  feet  above  the  masonry 
of  the  dam.  At  the  left  abutment  are  located  a 
sluiceway  and  the  head-works  controlling  the  en- 
trance to  the  Corbett  Tunnel. 

About  twelve  miles  below  this  tunnel  the  main 
canal  crosses  a  drainage  line  near  Ealston,  and  here 
is  found  a  reservoir  of  2,100  acre-feet  capacity  to 
regulate  the  flow  in  the  main  canal.  It  also  fur- 
nishes a  domestic  water-supply  to  the  towns  of  Eals- 
ton and  Powell. 

The  Shoshone  Project  was  built  under  the  general 


360       EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

direction  of  H.  N.  Savage  as  Supervising  Engineer. 
The  construction  of  Shoshone  Dam  was  under  the 
immediate  direction  of  D.  W.  Cole. 

Up  to  the  present  time  it  has  not  been  necessary 
to  make  any  large  use  of  stored  water  for  irrigation 
purposes,  the  normal  flow  of  the  river  being  suffi- 
cient for  all  requirements.  However,  when  the  en- 
tire project  is  under  constructed  works,  and  the 
lands  cultivated  and  irrigated,  stored  water  will  be 
necessary,  and  for  this  reason  the  Shoshone  Dam 
was  constructed. 

Future  work  on  the  Shoshone  project  contem- 
plates the  construction  of  the  Highline  Canal,  the 
Willwood  Canal,  and  the  extension  of  the  Frannie 
Canal  to  cover  lands  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town  of 
that  name,  in  Wyoming,  now  practically  completed. 

The  Willwood  Division,  lying  on  the  south  side  of 
Shoshone  River,  will  be  irrigated  by  a  main  canal 
twenty-one  miles  in  length,  taking  water  from  the 
Shoshone  River  about  seven  miles  below  Corbett 
Dam.  Water  will  be  diverted  directly  into  the  canal 
without  the  aid  of  a  dam.  There  are  several  points 
where  it  will  be  necessary  to  drop  the  water  in  the 
canal  distances  of  from  25  to  40  feet,  and  it  is  pro- 
posed to  take  advantage  of  these  drops  and  develop 
the  electrical  energy  which  will  be  used  in  pumping 
water  to  adjacent  lands,  which  can  not  be  reached 
from  the  gravity  canal. 

The  Highline  Division  will  probably  be  the  last  to 
be  constructed.  The  present  plans  contemplate  a 
canal  through  Shoshone  Canyon  for  a  distance  of 
three  miles,  about  two  miles  of  which  will  be  located 
in  tunnel.  The  line  then  turns  in  a  northerly  di- 


O      ~ 


II 


IN  THE  BIG  HOEN  BASIN  361 

rection  along  the  foothills  of  Hart  Mountain  and  ex- 
tends to  Alkali  Creek.  The  lands  under  the  High- 
line  Canal  are  of  excellent  quality  and  should  be 
very  productive.  As  this  division  of  the  project  will 
be  the  highest  cost,  it  may  be  some  years  before  land 
values  will  be  sufficiently  increased  to  repay  the  cost 
of  bringing  the  water  to  them. 

The  settlement  of  the  project  in  the  early  days 
was  attended  with  many  difficulties.  The  building 
charge  was  50  per  cent  higher  than  on  the  Huntley 
Project,  which  is  located  about  one  hundred  miles 
distant  in  the  State  of  Montana.  The  conditions 
surrounding  the  settlement  and  development  of  the 
two  projects  varied  greatly.  The  soil  was  of  a  dif- 
ferent texture  and  while  that  on  the  Shoshone  proj- 
ect was  rich  in  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  it  was 
lacking  in  humus,  and  this  made  it  necessary  to  be- 
gin with  grain  crops  and  work  into  the  raising  of 
alfalfa  before  such  crops  as  potatoes  and  sugar  beets 
could  be  successfully  grown.  On  the  Huntley  Proj- 
ect the  soil  contained  the  plant  food  necessary  for 
the  growing  of  sugar  beets,  and  as  a  factory  was 
established  at  Billings,  thirteen  miles  distant,  it  was 
possible  for  the  settlers  almost  immediately  to  raise 
a  profitable  and  substantial  crop.  On  the  Shoshone 
Project  it  took  considerable  time  to  bring  this  about, 
and  in  the  meantime  the  farmers  had  to  resort  to 
stock  raising  and  dairying  in  order  to  secure  the 
best  possible  returns  from  their  products.  This 
was  one  of  the  main  difficulties  that  confronted  the 
early  settlers.  They  had  many  others  to  overcome, 
but  the  results  today  demonstrate  that  all  of  the 
problems  have  been  successfully  handled.  Any  en- 


362        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

ergetic  farmer  can  handle  a  farm  unit  on  the  Sho- 
shone  Project  with  profit. 

The  average  use  of  water  on  the  project  has  been 
very  close  to  two  acre-feet  per  acre,  and  in  cases 
where  it  was  distributed  with  care,  even  this  quan- 
tity was  more  than  was  actually  required.  A  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  Garland  Flat  is  underlain 
with  gravel,  and  it  is  practically  impossible  to  apply 
to  the  land  only  that  quantity  of  water  required  for 
the  growth  of  profitable  crops.  There  is  certain  to 
be  some  water  which  sinks  into  the  sub-soil  and 
which  must  be  disposed  of  either  through  natural 
underground  drainage  channels,  or  by  artificial  chan- 
nels. There  is  a  common  saying  that  drainage  fol- 
lows irrigation,  and  the  Shoshone  Project  was  no 
exception  to  the  rule. 

To  provide  funds  for  carrying  on  drainage  work 
the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  made  provision  for  an 
increase  of  $5  per  acre  in  the  building  charge  on 
the  project.  Since  the  passage  of  the  Reclamation 
Extension  Act  the  settlers  have  voted  an  increase  of 
$7  per  acre  to  carry  on  the  necessary  drainage 
work.  Before  all  the  drainage  work  is  completed 
there  will  be  at  least  $600,000  and  possibly  much 
more  expended  on  this  feature  of  the  project  alone. 

Alfalfa  is  still  the  leading  crop,  and  during  the 
1916  season  31,000  tons  were  harvested.  There  are 
two  alfalfa  meal  mills  on  the  project,  one  located  at 
Powell  and  the  other  at  Garland.  The  mills  always 
afford  the  farmers  a  cash  market  for  their  hay  and 
the  farmer  who  does  not  have  sufficient  capital  to 
acquire  and  raise  the  necessary  stock  to  feed  his 


IN  THE  BIG  HOEN  BASIN  363 

alfalfa  can  always  find  a  ready  sale  for  it.  The 
average  yield  per  acre  has  been  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  three  tons,  and  it  is  possible  to  harvest  three 
crops  per  year.  From  tests  made  in  feeding  hogs 
and  dairy  cows,  it  is  possible  to  obtain  from  two  to 
three  times  as  much  for  the  alfalfa  hay  as  if  it  were 
sold  at  the  mills. 

One  of  the  most  important  industries  on  the 
project  is  that  of  dairying.  The  farmers  are  con- 
ducting a  co-operative  creamery  which  makes  an 
excellent  quality  of  butter,  the  demand  for  which  is 
far  in  excess  of  the  supply.  The  creamery  makes 
on  an  average  about  6,500  pounds  of  butter  per 
month,  and  recently  has  been  paying  41  cents  per 
pound  for  butter  fat. 

In  1916  the  total  value  of  crops  amounted  to  $600,- 
903.08,  and  each  year  sees  a  marked  increase.  On 
old  alfalfa  ground  oats  have  produced  as  high  as 
100  bushels  per  acre.  In  one  instance  oats  on  land 
farmed  for  the  first  time  produced  90  bushels  per 
acre.  Sugar  beets  are  paying  well.  In  1916  the 
farmers  received  an  average  price  of  $75  per  acre, 
the  maximum  being  $120.  When  consideration  is 
given  to  the  fact  that  of  the  575  unit  holders,  only 
about  50  per  cent  had  experience  in  farming  before 
coming  to  these  lands,  and  only  about  15  per  cent  of 
the  remaining  50  per  cent  had  ever  farmed  by  irri- 
gation, the  progress  made  and  the  farm  returns  are 
remarkable. 

The  settlers  on  the  Shoshone  Project  are  an  ex- 
ceptionally fine,  progressive  class  of  people,  and 
have  established  numerous  churches,  schools  and 


364        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

clubs  necessary  for  the  spiritual,  mental  and  social 
welfare  of  the  community.  There  are  no  saloons. 
There  is  a  central  school  at  Powell  where  most  of 
the  children  receive  their  education.  Land  has  been 
reserved  for  a  high  school  which  will  be  built  in  the 
near  future.  Powell  is  the  principal  town,  where 
good  banks,  mercantile  stores,  and  other  business 
houses  have  been  established.  The  Cody  branch  of 
the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy  Eailroad  trav- 
erses the  project  and  good  connection  is  maintained 
with  the  main  line  to  Denver  and  Billings. 

No  one  can  set  a  limit  as  to  future  development. 
It  rests  on  the  most  substantial  foundations  that 
exist — agriculture,  where  every  man  has  a  perpetual 
gold  mine  in  his  backyard.  Ten  miles  east  of  Pow- 
ell are  the  Byron  oil  fields,  and  in  this  district  is 
located  one  of  the  heaviest  flowing  gas  wells  that  has 
been  encountered  in  the  United  States.  Eighteen 
miles  to  the  north  is  the  Elk  Basin  country,  where 
there  is  great  activity  connected  with  recent  oil  de- 
velopments. The  air  is  full  of  possibilities,  and  ex- 
perts are  prospecting  other  oil  fields  located  con- 
siderably nearer  the  project  lands.  The  work  now 
under  way  in  the  near-by  oil  fields  has  had  a  decided 
influence  in  prices  paid  for  forage  and  other  farm 
produce,  as  well  as  wages  for  men  and  teams,  and 
has  had  considerable  to  do  with  the  general  air  of 
good  feeling  and  prosperity  that  exists,  and  the 
bright  prospects  for  the  future. 

The  total  cost,  so  far,  of  the  Shoshone  Project  has 
been  about  $4,875,000.  The  construction  charge  per 
acre  of  public  lands  has  been  placed  at  $59  payable 
in  twenty  years  without  interest.  There  are  still 


IN  THE  BIG  HORN  BASIN  365 

public  lands  available  for  entry,  and  others  will  be 
announced  as  the  extensions  are  made. 

The  Project  Manager  is  George  0.  Sanf ord  with 
office  at  Powell,  "Wyoming. 


CHAPTER 

IMPROVING   CONDITIONS   FOB   THE   FIRST   FAMILIES    OF 
AMERICA.      PROJECTS   FOR   THE   INDIANS 

Long  prior  to  the  work  of  the  Reclamation  Serv- 
ice the  Government  of  the  United  States  through  its 
Indian  Department,  was  seeking  to  do  at  least  one 
admirable  and  worthy  work  to  help  retrieve  its  black 
record  of  treatment  accorded  to  the  Indians.  It  was 
doing  what  it  could  to  provide  water  for  the  lands 
of  the  aborigines.  Most  of  these  lands  were  located 
in  the  arid  section  of  the  country,  and  the  few  far- 
seeing  men  in  the  Indian  Service  had  long  been  seek- 
ing to  secure,  more  or  less  successfully,  authorization 
for  the  establishment  of  irrigation  works  on  Indian 
lands  in  order  that  they  could  encourage  active  and 
practical  agriculture  among  their  wards.  These 
works,  however,  were  generally  on  a  small  scale  and 
built  under  the  supervision  of  the  Indian  agents  and 
superintendents,  with  only  occasional  assistance 
from  trained  engineers.  For  their  construction 
Congress  provided  the  Indian  Office  with  funds  in  the 
Indian  Appropriation  Bill. 

As  the  work  grew  in  importance  it  was  designated 
as  a  separate  part  of  the  Indian  Service  and  a  Chief 
Engineer  was  appointed  to  supervise  the  technical 
work.  In  1907,  however,  the  Secretary  of  the  Inte- 
rior called  upon  the  Indian  Department  and  the 
Reclamation  Service  to  work  in  co-operation.  A 

366 


PEOJECTS  FOB  THE  INDIANS        367 

working  agreement  was  soon  made  and  now  in  the 
smaller  plans  carried  out  by  the  Indian  Department 
it  has  the  benefit  of  the  help  of  the  Eeclamation  Serv- 
ice, and  in  four  larger  and  more  comprehensive  plans 
the  actual  work  has  been  turned  over  to  the  Service 
to  complete. 

PIMA   INDIAN   PROJECT,   ARIZONA 

One  of  these  four  has  already  been  finished  and 
given  over  to  the  control  of  the  Indian  Department 
for  the  benefit  of  the  Pima  Indians.  It  was  the  con- 
struction of  a  flood-water  canal  on  the  Gila  Eiver, 
with  adequate  distributaries,  and  an  electric  power 
transmission-line,  run  from  the  Eoosevelt  Dam  of  the 
Salt  Elver  Project,  for  pumping  irrigation-water 
from  wells  put  down  on  the  reservation.  At  first  the 
Indians  were  much  opposed  to  the  use  of  well-water, 
but  as  several  years  have  passed  by  and  they  have 
found  no  evil  result  from  its  use,  and  their  lands 
have  much  improved  in  productiveness  and  value 
since  irrigation  has  been  provided,  they  are  losing 
their  discontent. 

BLACKFEET   INDIAN   PROJECT,   MONTANA 

This  project  is  located  in  Teton  County,  in  the 
northwestern  portion  of  the  State  of  Montana,  on  the 
Blackf  eet  Indian  Eeservation,  which  occupies  an  area 
somewhat  larger  than  the  state  of  Ehode  Island,  ex- 
tending from  the  Eocky  Mountains  east  about  50 
miles,  and  from  the  Canadian  line  50  miles  or  more 
south. 

From  that  portion  of  the  Eocky  Mountains  form- 
ing the  western  boundary  of  the  reservation  six 


368        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

sizeable  streams  derive  their  source,  being  fed  from 
perpetual  snows  and  glaciers,  insuring  a  fairly  uni- 
form and  reliable  flow.  These  streams  are  the  St. 
Mary's  River,  flowing  northward  into  the  Saskatche- 
wan and  finally  lost  in  Hudson  Bay;  Milk  Eiver,  one 
of  the  principal  branches  of  the  Missouri  Eiver ;  Cut 
Bank  Creek,  the  Two  Medicine  Eiver,  Badger  Creek 
and  Birch  Creek — the  last  four  forming  the  Marias 
Eiver,  a  principal  tributary  of  the  Missouri. 

The  lands  to  be  irrigated  are  located  in  general 
in  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  reservation  and 
are  tributary  to  Cut  Bank  Creek,  Birch  Creek,  the 
Two  Medicine  Eiver,  and  Badger  Creek.  In  eleva- 
tion the  irrigable  land  varies  from  4,000  feet  on  the 
benches  and  upper  reaches  of  the  creek  to  about  3,560 
feet  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  area,  having  in 
general  a  good  slope  to  the  south  and  the  east.  The 
main  line  of  the  Great  Northern  Eailway  bisects  the 
northern  part  of  the  irrigable  area. 

The  project  is  being  developed  primarily  for  the 
Blackfeet  Indian  tribe  to  supply  the  needs  of  these 
Indians  for  irrigated  lands  upon  which  they  can  raise 
forage  and  grain  crops  to  supplement  their  grazing 
lands ;  also  root  crops  and  general  farm  and  garden 
produce. 

Some  work  had  been  done  by  the  Indian  Depart- 
ment prior  to  the  year  1904,  but  nothing  commensu- 
rate with  the  needs  of  the  Indians  or  the  possibilities 
of  the  streams  that  were  being  tapped. 

After  careful  studies  of  the  whole  region  the  fol- 
lowing plan  was  duly  authorized.  It  provides  for 
five  irrigation  systems  on  the  Blackfeet  Indian  Ees- 
ervation,  as  follows:  (1)  The  Cutbank  North  Canal 


PEOJECTS  FOE  THE  INDIANS        369 

system  heading  on  the  left  bank  of  Cutbank  Creek 
and  supplying  water  for  20,000  acres  of  land  north 
and  east  of  the  creek,  11,000  acres  of  which  are  out- 
side of  the  reservation;  (2)  the  Cutbank  South  Ca- 
nal system  heading  on  the  right  bank  of  Cutbank 
Creek  and  supplying  water  for  18,000  acres  of  land 
near  Carlow  and  Seville  stations  on  the  Great  North- 
ern Eailway;  (3)  the  Two  Medicine  Canal  systems, 
diverting  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Two  Medicine 
Kiver  and  supplying  water  through  the  North 
Branch  Canal,  the  Spring  Lake  Eeservoir,  and  the 
South  Branch  Canal  to  48,000  acres  of  land;  (4)  the 
Badger-Fisher  Canal  system  diverting  water  from 
the  right  bank  of  Badger  Creek,  supplying  water 
direct  through  a  feeder  canal  to  3,000  acres  of  land 
on  the  Piegan  Flats  and  through  the  Four  Horns 
Supply  Canal  and  Eeservoir  and  the  Fisher  Canal  to 
30,000  acres  of  land  between  Badger  and  Birch 
Creeks;  and  (5)  the  Bird  Creek  Canal  system,  di- 
verting from  the  left  bank  of  Birch  Creek,  and  sup- 
plying water  to  3,500  acres  of  land  between  Birch 
and  Blacktail  Creeks. 

The  irrigable  lands  of  the  project  are  located  in 
general  in  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  Blackf  eet 
Indian  Eeservation,  adjacent  to  the  north  bank  of 
Cutbank  Creek  and  between  Cutbank  Creek  and 
Birch  Creek.  Of  the  above  irrigation  plan  the  first 
development  of  the  Two  Medicine  Canal  system  is 
completed,  including  36  miles  of  main  canals,  with 
headworks  and  other  structures,  and  a  complete  dis- 
tributing system,  with  structures  to  deliver  water 
to  approximately  24,000  acres  of  land.  A  storage 
reservoir  has  been  completed  at  Lower  Two  Medicine 


370       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

Lake  to  furnish  a  maximum  storage  of  16,000  acre- 
feet  of  water  for  this  unit.  On  the  Badger-Fisher 
unit  a  small  canal  diverts  water  from  Badger  Creek 
direct  to  approximately  3,000  acres  of  the  Piegan 
Flats. 

A  supply  canal  12  miles  long,  delivering  water  to 
Four  Horns  Eeservoir,  has  been  completed.  Tem- 
porary controlling  works  to  Four  Horns  Lake  have 
been  completed,  making  available  a  reservoir  of 
4,000  acre-feet  capacity.  Water  from  this  storage 
follows  the  natural  channel  to  Blacktail  Creek,  from 
which  it  is  diverted  into  the  Fisher  Canal,  designed  to 
irrigate  about  30,000  acres  of  the  Fisher  Flats.  The 
Fisher  Canal  is  completed  both  as  to  excavation  and 
structures  to  the  end.  Excavation  of  the  lateral  sys- 
tem is  also  completed  to  cover  about  20,000  acres  of 
allotted  land.  The  larger  structures  on  the  canal 
system  are  completed,  and  the  smaller  structures 
will  be  built  as  needed.  The  Birch  Creek  canal  is 
completed  to  the  end  of  mile  6.  Work  of  the  imme- 
diate future  includes  the  construction  of  a  few  small 
structures  on  the  Fisher  distribution  system,  the 
construction  of  the  Birch  Creek  distribution  system, 
and  the  enlargement  of  a  portion  of  the  Two  Medi- 
cine Canal.  No  work  has  been  done  on  the  Cutbank 
Unit. 

In  doing  the  work  on  this  project  the  engineers 
utilized  the  labour  of  the  Indians  as  far  as  possible. 
It  is  interesting  to  know  what  one  of  them  said  of 
these  Blackfeet  and  Piegans  when  they  first  began 
to  work.  He  said : 

Although  most  of  the  Indians  are  fairly  willing  to  work 
for  a  short  time  each  year  they  are  not  economical  help,  as 


Two  MEDICINE  CANAL  HEADWORKS  AND  RIVER,  FROM  NORTH 

SIDE  OF  CANAL 
BLACKFEET  PROJECT,  MONTANA 


FLUME  ON  FISHER  CANAL 
BLACKFEET  PROJECT,  MONTANA 


PEOJECTS  FOE  THE  INDIANS        371 

they  cannot  be  used  on  general  work  and  are  unwilling  to 
undertake  new  work  or  any  laborious  work  that  may  require 
severe  physical  exertion;  as  teamsters  driving  their  own 
teams  they  appear  at  their  best,  but  the  general  average 
efficiency  of  the  Indian  as  a  lot,  on  this  class  of  work,  is 
not  over  75  per  cent  of  the  ordinary  gang  of  white  labourers. 
One  of  the  greatest  drawbacks  in  working  them  is  that  they 
are  so  unstable  and  are  willing  to  work  only  at  certain 
periods  or  intervals.  For  instance,  they  nearly  all  want 
to  work  during  June  so  as  to  secure  money  for  their  annual 
Fourth  of  July  Celebration,  and  are  willing  to  work  a  week 
or  two  thereafter  to  provide  a  grub-stake  for  the  summer 
months,  but  do  not  appear  to  be  willing  to  work  between 
the  latter  part  of  July  and  some  time  in  September,  from 
which  time  they  are  only  willing  to  work  until  about  the 
first  or  middle  of  November.  This  results  in  an  unbalanced 
working  force  for  a  good  part  of  the  time,  as  the  auxiliary 
Indian  force  varies  from  140  teams  and  200  men  one  month 
to  no  teams  whatever  and  only  one  or  two  Indian  labourers 
the  next  month;  it  may  be  said,  however,  that  they  have 
gained  experience  by  the  work  they  have  done  thus  far,  and 
are  becoming  more  efficient  workmen,  and  better  satisfied 
with  the  working  conditions. 

It  was  soon  found  that  to  procure  effective  work 
from  the  Indians7  horses  they  must  be  better  fed, 
hence  it  was  made  compulsory  that  all  work  animals 
should  be  fed  a  ration  of  ten  pounds  of  oats  per  work- 
ing day.  It  took  the  Indians  some  time  to  learn  the 
good  of  this,  but  ultimately  they  saw  the  improve- 
ment in  their  horses  and  gave  in  the  main,  their  un- 
stinted approval  of  the  requirement. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  a  later  report  as  to  the 
working  quality  of  the  Indians,  which  says : 

The  efficiency  of  the  Indian  has  improved  greatly  during 
the  period  of  years  in  which  he  has  worked  for  the  Reclama- 
tion Service.  He  now  understands  how  to  use  his  teams 


372        EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

either  as  a  freighter  or  on  ploughs,  fresno,  wheelers,  or  slips. 
With  this  acquired  knowledge  for  work  he  is  in  much  better 
condition  to  carry  on  his  own  farm  and  ranch  operations  in 
which  he  must  acquire  efficiency  in  order  to  be  self-support- 
ing. 

The  Indian  is  much  more  efficient  under  a  foreman  on 
government  work  than  when  working  for  himself.     In  order 
to  make  good  farmers  they  must  have  care,  supervision,  and 
assistance  from  their  department. 

The  earning  of  money  by  honest  labour  has  given  the  In- 
dian confidence  in  his  ability  to  make  a  living  by  himself. 
Could  he  be  given  the  opportunity  he  would  earn  not  only 
his  rations  but  also  the  horses,  cattle,  and  farm  machinery 
that  he  needs  for  his  farming  and  ranch  operations. 

The  irrigable  area  of  the  project  is  122,500  acres ; 
111,500  acres  lie  within  the  Blackfeet  Indian  Eeser- 
vation,  and  11,000  acres  outside  and  adjacent  to  the 
Reservation  on  the  east.  The  land  outside  of  the 
Eeservation  is  entirely  settled  by  homesteaders,  but 
the  irrigation  system  for  this  tract  has  not  been  de- 
veloped. Of  the  lands  within  the  Eeservation,  about 
57,000  acres  are  unallotted,  and  54,500  acres  allotted 
to  members  of  the  Blackfeet  Tribe.  Of  the  allotted 
lands,  a  very  small  percentage  is  occupied  by  the 
allotees  or  is  adjacent  to  lands  on  which  they  live. 
The  unallotted  lands  have  not  as  yet  been  opened  for 
settlement.  Irrigation  systems  have  been  con- 
structed only  for  Indian  lands;  46,640  acres  of 
which  could  have  been  irrigated  in  1916. 

The  principal  need  of  the  project  is  farmers  on  the 
land.  Very  few  of  the  members  of  the  Blackfeet  In- 
dian Tribe  live  on  their  irrigable  land  or  even  near 
it.  The  majority  of  them  live  on  their  grazing  al- 
lotments near  the  mountains  or  on  the  streams. 


PROJECTS  FOR  THE  INDIANS        373 

The  excellent  range  on  the  Reservation  is  bringing 
in  many  cattle  from  the  outside  to  be  pastured.  The 
Tribal  Herd  and  the  herds  of  the  thriftier  class  are 
increasing  rapidly.  This  has  created  a  demand  for 
forage  that  cannot  be  supplied  locally.  The  farming 
in  the  past  has  demonstrated  that  excellent  crops  of 
alfalfa,  native  hay,  timothy,  small  grain,  potatoes, 
and  the  hardier  vegetables  can  be  raised  with  irriga- 
tion. The  railway  facilities  for  the  irrigable  lands 
are  good,  and  all  the  produce  raised  finds  a  ready 
market. 

In  due  time  when  the  Indians  are  fully  settled  on 
their  irrigated  lands,  the  unused  lands  are  opened  up 
to  settlement,  and  water  is  supplied  to  the  home- 
steaders outside  of  the  reservation,  this  will  become 
a  far  more  active  and  profitable  project. 

It  is  contemplated  that  the  Indians  shall  pay  back 
their  proportion  of  the  construction  cost  of  the  proj- 
ect out  of  the  leases  of  their  land,  sale  of  produce, 
and  profits  from  the  Tribal  Herd  within  the  next 
thirty  years. 

The  present  Project-Manager  is  R.  M.  Snell,  with 
offices  at  Browning,  Montana. 

THE   FLATHEAD   INDIAN   PKOJECT,    MONTANA 

The  Flathead  Project  comprises  the  lands  of  the 
Flathead  Indian  Reservation  lying  in  Missoula, 
Flathead  and  Sanders  Counties,  Montana.  This  is 
between  latitudes  47  and  48  north  and  longitudes 
113-40'  and  115  west. 

The  boundaries  of  the  reservation  on  east,  south 
and  west  are  mountain  ranges.  The  central  body  of 
the  tract  is  a  valley  or  series  of  connected  valleys 


374       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

protected  by  mountain  ranges  and  watered  by 
streams  flowing  inward  from  all  sides.  These 
streams  all  join  their  waters  with  those  of  the  Flat- 
head  Eiver  which  rises  to  the  north  and  east  of  the 
reservation,  partly  in  Canada,  and  flows  south  and 
west  throughout  its  whole  length.  Flathead  Lake, 
thirty-five  miles  from  north  to  south  and  about  ten 
miles  wide,  lies  half  within  the  northern  part  of  the 
reservation.  The  lake  is  fed  by  the  Flathead  and 
Swan  rivers  and  numerous  smaller  streams  and  the 
river  issuing  from  the  south  end  of  the  lake  keeps  the 
name  Flathead.  The  average  surface  elevation  of 
the  lake  is  about  2885  above  sea  level.  Leaving  the 
lake  the  river  has  cut  its  way  through  a  clay  forma- 
tion and  occasional  ledges  of  quartzite  rock  making 
a  canyon  reaching  in  places  a  depth  of  500  feet  and 
falling  in  the  first  six  miles  about  240  feet.  The 
river  leaves  the  reservation  at  elevation  about  2470. 
There  is  thus  about  400  feet  of  fall  much  of  which  is 
utilized  for  power. 

The  greater  part  of  the  valleys  were  once  the  bed 
of  an  ancient  lake  known  to  geologists  as  Lake  Mis- 
soula.  The  soil  of  the  valleys  is  everywhere  under- 
laid with  clay,  bearing  fragments  of  rock,  evidently 
ice-carried.  The  mountain  sides  up  to  an  elevation 
of  about  4000  feet,  at  least,  show  well  marked  beach 
lines  at  many  elevations  and  no  one  much  more  ac- 
cented than  the  others.  Ice  has  played  quite  a  part 
in  forming  the  surface  as  is  witnessed  in  the  ridges 
south  and  west  of  the  Flathead  Lake  and  by  the  pot- 
hole formation  met  with  near  Crow  Creek.  Near  the 
mountains,  too,  there  are  many  morainal  ridges  and 
the  creeks  leaving  the  mountains  often  do  so  along 


PEOJECTS  FOR  THE  INDIANS        375 

lines  that  are  parallel  with  the  main  range  for  miles. 
The  valley  is  dotted  with  small  lakes  where  the  clay 
soil  holds  water  in  the  pot-holes  all  the  year  and  in 
the  mountain  valleys  are  many  small  lakes,  some 
scooped  out  of  solid  rock  and  others  formed  by  dams 
of  loose  material,  evidently  glacial  moraines.  The 
Jocko  lakes,  at  the  head  of  one  of  the  forks  of  the 
Jocko  Eiver,  are  held  by  such  porous  dams  that  they 
discharge  only  below  ground  and  the  annual  range  of 
water-level  in  them  is  ordinarily  ten  or  more  feet. 
These  lakes  are  swarming  with  trout. 

Portions  of  the  valley  and  nearly  all  the  mountain 
slopes  are  covered  with  timber,  of  which  it  is  esti- 
mated there  is  over  a  billion  and  a  half  feet  B.  M.  of 
merchantable  timber.  This  is  mainly  pine,  fir  and 
larch  with  a  little  cedar. 

The  eastern  mountains,  known  as  the  Mission 
Eange,  rise  to  almost  10,000  feet  elevation  and  retain 
a  large  amount  of  precipitation  in  the  form  of  gla- 
ciers until  late  in  the  spring,  so  that  high  water  comes 
in  June  and  the  supply  lasts  well  into  the  summer. 
The  principal  streams  rising  in  these  mountains  are, 
starting  in  the  south,  Finley  Creek,  Jocko  Eiver, 
Mission  Creek,  Post  Creek,  Crow  Creek  and  Mud 
Creek. 

Coming  from  the  west  and  north,  the  Little  Bitter 
Root  is  the  main  stream,  having  small  tributaries  en- 
tering from  the  west.  These  rise  at  lower  altitudes 
than  the  stream  in  the  Mission  Mountains  and  the 
flow  is  less  in  amount  and  duration. 

The  average  rainfall,  from  1909  to  1915  at  St. 
Ignatius,  of  17.37  inches  shows  that  this  part  of 
Montana  is  to  be  classed  as  semi-arid. 


376        EECLAIMING  THE  ABID  WEST 

The  temperature  at  St.  Ignatius  ranges  from  30° 
below  zero,  Fahr.  in  January,  1909,  to  96°  Fahr.  for 
midsummer.  Some  winters  the  thermometer  does 
not  go  to  zero.  On  the  immediate  shores  of  Flathead 
Lake  the  temperature  seems  to  be  from  10  to  15  de- 
grees higher  during  coldest  periods  and  this  renders 
the  lakeside  safe  for  growing  some  kinds  of  fruits 
that  are  seldom  successful  in  this  latitude.  Violent 
winds  are  rare  and  the  winter  storms  are,  as  a  rule, 
not  accompanied  by  high  winds.  Snow  falls  to  a 
depth  of  24  inches  or  more  occasionally,  but  is  fre- 
quently removed  a  few  days  after  falling  by  chinook 
winds  so  that  sleighing  is  the  exception. 

Written  records  of  the  reservation  begin  about 
the  time  the  Society  of  Jesus  founded  the  Mission 
here  in  1854. 

A  travelling  Iroquois  Indian  had  told  the  Flat- 
heads  about  the  "  black  robes "  and  they  became  so 
interested  that  they  sent  messengers  in  four  differ- 
ent expeditions  to  St.  Louis  to  ask  the  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries to  come  to  the  Flathead  country.  The 
first  expedition  went  in  1831.  It  was  not  until  1840 
that  their  wishes  were  gratified,  when  Father  De 
Smet  set  out  and  reached  the  tribe  the  same  year. 
After  remaining  with  them  a  few  weeks  he  went 
back,  promising  to  return.  The  following  year  a 
number  of  priests  made  the  trip  and  arrived  in  the 
Bitter  Boot  Valley  in  the  fall  and  there  established 
St.  Mary's  Mission,  the  first  among  the  Flatheads, 
in  1841. 

The  St.  Ignatius  Mission  was  established  in  1854 
at  the  present  location.  Here  a  community  grew  up 
containing  three  schools  which  are  now  maintained, 


PKOJECTS  FOE  THE  INDIANS        377 

one  by  the  Society  of  Jesus,  one  by  the  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  Providence  and  the  last  by  the  Ursuline 
Nuns.  By  means  of  employing  irrigation  and  mod- 
ern agricultural  methods  these  schools,  each  having 
a  farm,  are  practically  self-supporting  and  furnish 
board,  clothing  and  school  training  to  over  200  chil- 
dren at  the  present  time.  Irrigation  has  been  prac- 
tised for  many  years,  fruit  trees  grown  and  in  gen- 
eral the  Mission  has  been  a  centre  of  moral  and 
agricultural  education  as  well  as  religious.  In  the 
legislation  relating  to  opening  the  reservation,  it 
was  provided  that  1,280  acres  of  land  be  set  aside 
for  the  above  named  societies,  all  except  forty  acres 
to  be  held  conditional  on  the  use  of  same  for  church, 
school  and  hospital  purposes. 

Soon  after  the  Mission  was  built  here,  water  was 
taken  from  Mission  or  Siniclemen  Creek  for  irriga- 
tion and  for  power  to  operate  a  saw  mill  and  a  grist 
mill.  This  was  probably  the  first  time  such  use  was 
made  of  water  on  the  reservation.  Orchard  trees 
were  planted  and  today  show  proof  that  the  region 
will  produce  excellent  fruit,  especially  apples.  The 
mills  have  been  remodelled  more  than  once  and  now 
contain  a  modern  patent  roller  flour  plant  and  there 
is  now  an  electric  plant  for  lighting  the  church  and 
school  buildings.  These  may  be  considered  the 
pioneer  developments  in  water  works  on  the  project. 

In  1855  a  treaty  was  signed  by  Governor  Stevens 
by  which  the  Indians  ceded  to  the  whites  much  of 
western  Montana  formerly  claimed  by  them.  This 
treaty  provided  that  the  President  should  survey 
and  determine  whether  Bitter  Eoot  Valley  was  best 
suited  to  the  Indians'  use.  The  Indians,  later, 


378       RECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

claimed  that  no  surveys  were  made  and  that  the 
Government  failed  for  many  years  to  provide  school- 
masters, blacksmiths,  etc.,  as  promised  in  the  treaty. 

November  14,  1871,  the  President  issued  an  order 
to  remove  the  Indians  to  Jocko  Valley,  and  June  5, 
1872,  Congress  voted  $50,000  to  pay  the  Indians  for 
the  improvements  made  by  them  in  the  Bitter  Root 
Valley. 

In  1872,  James  A.  Garfield  visited  them  and  made 
a  treaty  which,  in  some  measure,  remedied  the  fail- 
ures to  carry  out  the  agreement  made  in  1855,  and 
arranged  also  for  the  removal  of  the  Indians  to  the 
Jocko  Agency. 

To  assist  the  Indians  in  their  new  home  the  Gov- 
ernment constructed  canals  from  the  Jocko  River 
and  Finley  Creek  in  Jocko  Valley  and  these  have  for 
many  years  insured  crops  on  a  considerable  acreage 
of  fertile  soil.  Excellent  timothy  hay  has  been  a 
staple  product  and  has  been  shipped  out  of  the 
reservation  in  large  quantities.  To  some  extent 
fruits  have  been  planted  under  these  canals. 
Enough  was  done  to  prove  the  quality  of  the  soil  to 
be  excellent  and  the  possibility  of  paying  crops 
under  irrigation. 

Individual  Indians  or  breeds  built  a  number  of 
small  ditches  from  various  streams  in  different 
parts  of  the  reservation,  applying  the  water  to  hay, 
vegetables  and  fruit  growing  purposes.  No  large 
works  were  undertaken  by  them  and  there  was  only 
a  very  small  part  of  the  natural  water  supply  used, 
while  the  opportunities  to  extend  irrigation  by  stor- 
ing water  permitted  a  great  expansion  of  the  irri- 
gable area. 


PROJECTS  FOB  THE  INDIANS        379 

In  1904,  Congress  passed  an  act  allotting  lands  to 
the  Indians  in  severalty,  and  providing  for  the  sale 
and  disposal  of  all  surplus  lands  upon  their  reserva- 
tion. Soon  after  the  allotments  were  made  some  of 
the  Indians  began  to  lease  their  lands  to  the  whites 
who  raise  wheat  and  oats.  Considerable  grazing 
also  has  gone  on,  the  cattle  largely  owned  by  the 
whites,  who  pay  a  grazing  fee  to  the  Indians. 

June  6,  1909,  an  act  was  approved  providing  for 
the  laying  out  of  townsites  and  the  offering  for  sale 
of  the  lots  therein  at  Arlee,  Dayton,  Eavalli,  Dixon, 
Bonan,  St.  Ignatius  and  Poison.  Accordingly  these 
sites  were  surveyed  and  during  1909  offered  for  sale. 
Bidding  was  brisk  and  prices  ruled  high  for  the 
towns  on  the  lake  while  the  inland  towns  were  less 
in  demand,  but  all  lots  offered  were  sold.  Since  the 
sale,  which  ended  in  November,  1909,  building  has 
progressed  in  Poison,  Eonan  and  Dayton  with  fair 
rapidity. 

Other  townsites  have  been  selected  since  and 
given  mainly  historical  names  of  local  significance 
as  follows:  Moise,  D'Aste,  Chariot,  Eevais,  Flat- 
head,  Pablo,  Allard,  Blue  Bay  and  Yellow  Bay  along 
a  railway  survey,  and  Big  Arm  and  Camas  west  of 
the  lake. 

Congress  has  also  appropriated  money  for  the 
purchase  from  the  Flathead  tribe  of  lands  suitable 
for  a  bison  range  and  under  this  act  about  18,000 
acres  have  been  secured  and  fenced  in  for  this  pur- 
pose. This  land  lies  between  the  Flathead  and 
Jocko  rivers  and  Mission  Creek  and  was  stocked  in 
1909  with  37  bison  secured  from  the  Conrad  herd  at 
Kalispell.  The  bison  numbered  about  160  in  June, 


380        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

1916.  There  are  also  some  20  antelope,  50  elk  and 
a  few  deer. 

In  1907  an  arrangement  was  perfected  between 
the  United  States  Eeclamation  Service  and  the 
United  States  Indian  Service  whereby  the  engineer- 
ing organization  of  the  former  could  be  available 
for  investigations,  surveys,  plans  and  construction 
of  works  on  certain  Indian  reservations.  This  ar- 
rangement is  under  a  plan  of  co-operation  between 
the  Office  of  Indian  Affairs  in  control  of  the  appro- 
priations and  the  Reclamation  Service  in  direct 
charge  of  the  work. 

Acting  under  this  arrangement  surveys  were 
made  in  the  Flathead  region  and  it  was  determined 
from  hasty  surveys  that  gravity  water  supply  could 
be  obtained  for  78,000  acres  and  that  57,000  acres 
could  be  well  supplied  by  pumping  water  from  the 
Flathead  River  by  water  power. 

It  was  further  estimated  that  possibly  280,000 
horsepower  could  be  developed  for  pumping  irriga- 
tion water  and  other  purposes,  on  the  Flathead  River 
and  the  mountain  streams  heading  in  the  Mission 
range. 

In  April,  1908,  an  appropriation  of  $50,000  was 
made  and  work  begun  on  surveys  and  construction. 
Sixteen  reservoir  sites  were  planned,  varying  in  size 
from  Flathead  Lake,  with  a  capacity  of  1,800,000 
acre-feet,  to  the  smaller  of  the  Twin  Reservoirs, 
which  contains  but  419  acre-feet.  Pablo  Lake  was 
estimated  to  have  a  capacity  of  34,500,  Hubbart 
of  76,000,  St.  Mary  of  16,750,  Ninepipe  of  15,150  and 
McDonald  of  10,850  acre-feet.  Many  of  these  fig- 
ures are  to  be  revised  from  later  and  fuller  surveys. 


POST  CREEK  HEADWORKS  AND  MISSION  RANGE 
FLATHEAD  PROJECT,  MONTANA 


PKOJECTS  FOE  THE  INDIANS        381 

As  one  reads  the  tentative  plans  of  the  engineers, 
and  sees  from  their  reports  and  the  project  history, 
the  years  of  care,  thought,  study  and  thorough  ex- 
amination of  the  questions  of  development  of  reser- 
voir sites,  the  conservation  of  water,  its  distribution, 
the  utilization  of  all  available  power,  and  the  cover- 
ing of  as  many  acres  as  was  justified  by  the  records 
of  lowest  rainfall,  he  begins  to  have  a  new  esteem, 
respect,  and  reverence  for  the  creative  and  directive 
genius  thus  employed.  Surely  these  men  who  have 
worked  so  well  and  faithfully  through  the  years  de- 
serve well  at  our  hands. 

The  first  construction  work  was  on  the  Jocko  Unit, 
which  implied  the  taking  of  water  from  the  Jocko 
River  to  irrigate  the  lands  north  of  the  stream. 

Many  years  ago  the  Indian  Service  had  con- 
structed here  a  canal  for  about  six  miles.  This  was 
done  for  the  benefit  of  the  Flatheads  moved  over 
from  the  Bitter  Eoot  Valley.  The  wooden  struc- 
tures had  fallen  into  decay  and  the  canal  had  been 
of  little  use  for  several  years. 

About  six  thousand  acres  can  be  irrigated  from 
this  canal  and  the:  old  canal  had  not  been  large 
enough  to  cover  all  this  land.  Its  location  was  good 
so  far  as  it  went,  and  in  laying  out  a  larger  canal 
the  original  canal  was  followed  so  far  as  possible 
with  the  main  line,  and  where  it  was  decided  to  build 
the  new  canal  on  the  higher  ground,  parts  of  the  old 
canal  were  used  as  laterals. 

The  whole  project  contemplates  the  final  irriga- 
tion of  about  152,000  acres  of  land.  When  com- 
pleted there  will  be  sixteen  reservoirs,  with  an  ag- 
gregate area  of  117,556  acres,  and  a  capacity  of 


382        EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

1,949,970  acre-feet  (including  Flathead  Lake). 
When  the  canal  system  is  completed  there  will  be 
fourteen  miles  with  a  capacity  greater  than  300 
second-feet;  eighty-two  miles  with  capacities  from 
50  to  300  second-feet;  and  eight  hundred  miles  with 
capacities  less  than  50  second-feet.  Tunnels  have 
been  found  necessary  of  an  aggregate  length  of  3,868 
feet.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  work  wagon 
roads,  trails,  camps,  telephone  lines,  corduroy  roads 
were  constructed,  and  in  due  time  dams,  canals, 
tunnels  and  laterals  came  into  existence.  There  are 
no  startling  engineering  feats  on  this  project,  but 
exceeding  care  has  been  exercised  to  make  all  the 
dams  secure,  to  gain  the  fullest  efficiency  of  the 
water,  both  for  power  and  irrigation  purposes,  to 
reclaim  all  the  land  available,  and  further  the  gen- 
eral interests  of  the  settlers. 

Already  work  completed  has  made  possible  the 
irrigation  of  about  half  the  estimated  area.  This 
provides  storage  amounting  to  about  10,000  acre- 
feet.  The  providing  of  more  storage,  and  the  ex- 
tension of  the  canals  to  the  additional  75,000  acres, 
are  the  work  upon  which  the  engineers  are  now  di- 
recting their  energies. 

The  Indians  occupy  97,000  acres  of  the  land,  and 
white  settlers,  up  to  the  middle  of  the  year  1916, 
have  located  on  approximately  50,000  acres.  About 
5,000  acres  are  state  land,  but  practically  all  avail- 
able land  has  been  filed  upon. 

In  1914  and  1915  the  question  arose  as  to  the  right 
of  the  state  and  counties  to  tax  homesteads  taken  up 
on  this  project,  and  the  United  States  Attorney  felt 
that  this  was  contrary  to  the  spirit,  if  not  the  actual 


PEOJECTS  FOE  THE  INDIANS        383 

law,  of  the  Homestead  and  Eeclamation  Acts.  The 
matter  is  now  in  process  of  friendly  adjudication. 

Upon  completion  of  allotting  land  to  Indians  of 
the  Flathead  and  affiliated  tribes,  there  remained  un- 
used about  3,500  acres  immediately  bordering  Flat- 
head  Lake.  This  land  was,  by  Act  of  Congress,  set 
aside  for  the  creation  of  villa  sites,  and  its  subdi- 
vision into  tracts  of  from  two  to  five  acres  was  au- 
thorized. It  was  put  on  the  market  in  July,  1915, 
and  all  of  the  905  lots  were  sold  for  an  aggregate 
price  of  about  $131,000.  The  land  embraced  in  the 
villa  sites  varies  greatly,  some  being  excellent  farm- 
ing land  formerly  included  in  farm  units.  Other 
portions  are  rocky  and  precipitous. 

The  chief  crops  of  the  farms  are  alfalfa,  barley, 
beans,  sugar  beets,  corn,  flax,  clover,  timothy  and 
other  grass  for  hay,  oats,  onions,  potatoes,  peas, 
rape,  and  wheat,  with  good  returns  from  truck  gar- 
dens. The  lands  as  yet  unirrigated  are  unpro- 
ductive, and  those  who  settled  upon  them  now  real- 
ize that  they  were  unwise.  Hence  many  farms  have 
been  abandoned.  The  settlers  on  the  irrigated 
lands  are  fairly  prosperous  and  contented,  as  a  rule. 
The  towns  are  slowly  growing. 

Organizations  known  as  the  Farmers'  Society  of 
Equity  and  the  Farmers'  Co-operative  Union  have 
local  groups.  They  are  buying  goods  co-opera- 
tively and  beginning  to  take  up  the  marketing  of 
local  products.  There  has  been  concerted  effort  to 
obtain  good  dairy  stock  and  co-operative  purchases 
have  been  made. 

Women's  clubs  in  Poison  and  Eonan  have  taken 
up  civic  questions  and  have  established  libraries  in 


384        RECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

both  places.  They  also  devoted  effort  to  the  better- 
ment of  the  towns  in  the  line  of  "  municipal  house- 
keeping. ' ' 

The  principal  manufacturing  plants  on  the  proj- 
ect are  a  200  barrel  per  day  flour  mill,  located  at  Pol- 
son,  whose  product  in  1914  was  about  two  million 
pounds  of  flour  and  one  million  pounds  of  feed;  a 
creamery,  also  located  at  Poison,  and  several  small 
saw  and  planing  mills  which  supply  the  local  needs 
at  several  points. 

In  1915  a  new  three-room  store  building  was  built 
in  Eonan,  two  grain  elevators  built  by  co-operative 
farmers  at  Ravilli  and  Dixon,  and  local  branches  of 
the  Society  of  Equity  built  two  large  club-houses,  to 
be  used  also  as  central  school  buildings,  at  Leon  and 
Round  Butte. 

The  present  Project  Manager  is  F.  T.  Crowe,  with 
office  at  St.  Ignatius,  Montana. 

FOET   PECK    PKOJECT,    MONTANA 

At  the  extreme  northeast  of  Montana  is  located 
the  Fort  Peck  Indian  Reservation.  For  years  the 
greater  number  of  the  Indians  have  had  their  homes 
along  the  Missouri  River,  where  they  have  farmed 
the  dry  land,  or  cut  the  hay-crops  that  grew  with- 
out irrigation.  While  the  yields  were  reasonably 
good,  under  the  conditions,  the  irrigation  experts 
and  farmers  of  the  Indian  Department  soon  saw 
that,  with  irrigation,  the  condition  of  the  Indians 
could  be  materially  improved,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
a  large  amount  of  land  could  be  set  aside  for  entry 
by  the  whites.  Accordingly  a  thorough  survey  was 
ordered  which  led  to  the  formulation  of  a  plan,  to  be 


PEOJECTS  FOE  THE  INDIANS        385 

be  carried  out  jointly  by  the  Eeclamation  Service 
and  the  Indian  Department,  the  former  to  have  full 
charge  of  all  construction  work,  as  follows. 

Four  thousand  acres  of  land  on  the  reservation  in 
the  vicinity  of  Wiota  Station  are  to  be  irrigated 
with  flood  waters  from  Big  Porcupine  Creek;  2,000 
acres  in  the  vicinity  of  Frazer,  with  water  supply 
from  Little  Porcupine  Creek  conserved  by  storage ; 
28,000  acres  in  the  vicinity  of  Poplar  and  extending 
along  Poplar  Eiver  a  distance  of  35  miles,  with 
water  from  Poplar  Eiver,  conserved  by  storage  be- 
low the  forks  of  Poplar  and  West  Branch;  16,000 
acres  lying  along  the  west  side  of  Big  Muddy  Creek, 
with  water  supply  from  this  same  creek,  conserved 
by  storage  on  Smoke  and  Wolf  Creeks ;  50,000  acres 
of  clear  bench  lands  and  approximately  34,000 
acres  of  brush  and  timber  land  extending  along  the 
Missouri  Eiver,  with  water  supply  from  the  Mis- 
souri Eiver  by  a  gravity  canal  heading  near  the  site 
of  old  Fort  Peck;  10,000  acres,  known  as  the  Galpin 
Bottom,  lying  above  the  Missouri  Eiver  canal  west 
of  Milk  Eiver  and  Fort  Peck  Indian  Eeservation, 
with  water  supply  by  pumping  from  the  Missouri 
Eiver  Canal,  with  a  lift  of  about  20  feet ;  8,000  acres 
lying  above  the  Missouri  Eiver  Canal,  east  of  Milk 
Eiver,  in  the  Eeservation,  with  water  supply  pumped 
from  the  same  canal. 

The  Little  Porcupine  Unit,  with  storage  reservoir 
of  3,900  acre-feet,  has  been  completed  to  irrigate 
2,330  acres.  Poplar  Eiver  west  canal  B,  and  east 
canal  C,  are  practically  completed,  with  irrigable 
areas  of  2,560  and  5,330  acres.  The  Big  Porcupine 
Creek  Canal,  to  irrigate  4,000  acres  of  land  already 


386        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

allotted  on  the  west  boundary  of  the  reservation,  is 
also  practically  completed. 

The  principal  crops  raised  are  oats,  wheat,  flax, 
vegetables,  and  a  large  tonnage  of  blue- joint  hay. 

By  an  act  of  May  31,  1908,  the  lands  of  this  reser- 
vation were  classified  as  irrigable,  timber,  grazing, 
agricultural,  or  mineral,  and  the  Indians  were  each 
allotted  320  acres  of  agricultural  or  grazing  land, 
40  acres  of  irrigable  land,  and  20  acres  of  timber 
land,  and  later,  children  born  after  that  date  were 
to  receive  320  acres  of  grazing  land  so  long  as  any 
remained. 

The  unallotted  grazing  and  agricultural  land  was 
opened  to  public  entry  in  June,  1914,  and  by  Decem- 
ber, 1916,  there  was  very  little  of  it,  that  was  at  all 
desirable,  that  was  not  taken  up.  The  land  was  ap- 
praised at  from  $2.50  to  $7  per  acre.  In  addition, 
the  Indians  have  been  allowed  to  sell  some  of  their 
allotments,  and  about  two  hundred  have  already 
passed  into  the  possession  of  white  men,  at  prices 
ranging  from  $1,900  to  $4,050  for  a  320  acre  tract. 
Much  of  the  less  desirable  land  is  now  being  taken 
up  under  the  640  acre  homestead  law.  The  white 
purchasers  of  irrigable  land,  in  the  main,  are  eager 
to  take  advantage  of  the  water  provided  for  irriga- 
tion. 

There  is  little  question  but  that  the  next  few  years 
will  see  great  changes  upon  these  lands.  As  both 
Indians  and  whites  enlarge  their  irrigable  tracts 
crops  of  every  kind  will  increase  and  there  will  be 
marked  development. 

The  present  Project  Manager  is  E.  M.  Connor, 
with  office  at  Poplar,  Montana. 


DESERT  LANDS  BEFORE  RECLAMATION 
YAKIMA  PROJECT,  WASHINGTON 


DAM  ox  POPLAR  RIVER 


CHAPTER  XXXHI 

A  VISION"  OF  THE  FUTUBE 

Great  as  have  been,  and  are,  the  achievements  of 
the  Eeclamation  Service,  I  am  satisfied  that  the  lar- 
ger and  more  important  irrigation  problems  of  the 
country  have  not  yet  been  attacked.  These  past 
years  have  been  the  "trying  out"  years.  It  is  in  no 
sense  of  belittling  the  results  achieved  as  those  de- 
scribed that  I  purpose  pointing  out  how  little  has 
been  accomplished,  compared  with  what  may,  should, 
and  ultimately  will  be  done.  It  is  gratifying  to  our 
pride  to  know  that  the  Service  has  contributed  to 
the  country  some  of  the  most  notable  engineering 
structures,  these  being  built,  however,  not  with  a 
view  to  their  becoming  monuments  but  rather  to  their 
use  for  the  public  welfare.  It  has  built  the  highest 
dam  in  the  world — the  Arrowrock,  for  the  storage  of 
the  water  of  Boise  Eiver  in  Southern  Idaho.  It  has 
built  the  Elephant  Butte  dam  on  the  Eio  Grande  in 
New  Mexico,  whose  reservoir,  when  full,  will  store 
the  greatest  quantity  of  irrigation  water.  Up  to  the 
end  of  December,  1916,  it  has  dug  9,805  miles  of 
canals  and  1,139  miles  of  ditches  and  drains,  and  ex- 
cavated 91  tunnels  with  an  aggregate  length  of  nearly 
26  miles.  Dams  of  masonry,  earth,  crib,  and  rock  fill 
have  been  erected  with  a  total  volume  of  13,038,109 
cubic  yards.  The  available  reservoir  capacity  at 
this  time  is  approximately  9,007,160  acre  feet,  or  suf- 
ficient to  cover  the  states  of  New  Jersey  and  Dela- 

387 


388        EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

ware  with  water  to  a  depth  of  16  inches.  The  Serv- 
ice has  built  5,594  bridges  with  a  total  length  of  over 
23  miles.  Its  culverts  number  6,624,  and  are  43  miles 
long.  There  are  now  in  operation  385  miles  of  pipe 
line  and  95  miles  of  flumes.  The  Service  has  built 
879  miles  of  wagon  road,  much  of  it  in  what  was 
before  inaccessible  mountain  regions,  83  miles  of 
railroad,  2,804  miles  of  telephone  lines,  438  miles  of 
power-transmission  lines,  and  1,156  buildings,  such 
as  power-houses,  pumping-stations,  offices,  resi- 
dences, barns,  and  storehouses. 

The  projects  now  under  way  or  completed  embrace 
approximately  3,140,976  acres  of  irrigable  land,  di- 
vided in  about  61,310  farms  of  from  10  to  160  acres' 
each.  During  the  year  1916  water  was  available 
from  government  ditches  for  1,734,482  acres  on  36,- 
255  farms,  and  the  government  was  under  contract 
to  supply  water  to  1,313,191  acres.  The  excavations 
of  rock  and  earth  amount  to  146,034,177  cubic  yards. 
The  Service  has  used  2,786,619  barrels  of  cement,  of 
which  it  has  itself  manufactured  1,575,757  barrels  of 
cement  and  sand  cement.  The.  power  developed 
amounts  to  approximately  47,311  horse-power. 

The  net  investment  of  the  Service  to  date  is  ap- 
proximately $116,000,000.  In  1916  crops  valued  at 
$38,000,000  were  harvested,  the  gross  average  yield 
per  acre  being  $38.25. 

Let  every  patriotic  citizen  herald  these  actual  ac- 
complishments far  and  wide;  the  more  they  are 
broadly  known  the  better.  Then  let  us,  as  intelligent 
members  of  a  great  and  growing  republic,  a  leader  in 
democracy,  make  these  results  the  starting  point  for 
the  larger  achievements  of  the  future.  In  the  at- 


A  VISION  OF  THE  FUTURE  389 

taining  of  these  results  a  wonderful  experience  has 
been  gained,  a  competent  army  of  experts  developed, 
whose  abilities  have  been  enlarged  to  the  nth  power, 
and  whose  vision  has  been  expanded  to  a  remarkable 
degree  as  to  the  possibilities  that  still  await  realiza- 
tion. This  might  have  been  anticipated.  Yet  few 
there  are  that  see  this  fact  in  all  its  vast  and  preg- 
nant significance.  Instead  of  resting  in  proud  boast- 
fulness  upon  what  has  already  been  accomplished, 
these  results  should  be  accounted  as  the  mere  step- 
ping-stones to  the  infinitely  larger  developments  of 
the  future  which  await  realization.  The  onlooker, 
with  vision,  clearly  realizes  that  only  the  lesser  and 
more  simple  projects  have  been  attempted.  Not  a 
single  complete  drainage  basin  has  been  completely 
exploited.  Our  work,  viewed  in  the  larger  sense,  has 
been  piecemeal  and  fragmentary.  Secretary  Lane 
clearly  sees  this.  In  his  last  annual  report  he  said: 

"No  one  can  contemplate  the  yearly  toll  of  lives 
and  property  destroyed  by  the  furious  and  unre- 
strained sweep  of  our  rivers  without  realizing  that 
the  people  of  this  country  cannot  regard  themselves 
as  owning  this  land,  really  possessing  it,  until  they 
have  brought  these  waters  under  subjugation.  And 
in  so  doing,  thus  they  will  literally  create  new  land 
by  the  millions  of  acres,  lands  that  will  support  mil- 
lions of  people  as  against  the  thousands  which  live 
upon  it  today." 

Who  that  is  familiar  with  the  destructive  floods  of, 
say,  three  western  rivers  alone,  the  Columbia,  Colo- 
rado and  Sacramento,  does  not  understand  that  the 
real  conquest  of  these  rivers  has  not  yet  even  begun. 
For  want  of  reservoirs  at  the  headwaters  of  these 


390        BECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

rivers  the  country  annually  is  paying  a  heavy  toll  in 
destructive  floods,  washing  away  of  levees  and  can- 
als, and  in  the  loss  sustained  from  crops  which  might 
have  been  put  in,  irrigated,  and  successfully  reaped. 
So  long  as  these  rivers  are  our  masters — and  there 
are  many  others — let  us  refrain  from  boasting. 
Bather  let  us  recall  that  Argentina  is  constructing  a 
single  irrigation  system  which  will  cost  $60,000,000 ; 
that  English  canals  water  15,000,000  acres  in  Egypt 
and  35,000,999  acres  in  India,  and  a  revenue  of  3  to 
4  per  cent,  is  collected  each  year  on  the  investment. 

When  we  discover  from  our  nation's  statistics  that 
in  the  United  States  alone  there  are  80,000,000  acres 
of  swamp-lands  and  400,000,000  acres  of  deserts, 
mostly  public  domains,  the  mere  figures  are  stagger- 
ing. Our  swamp  and  overflow  lands  embrace  an 
area  greater  than  the  whole  superficial  area  of  the 
Philippines.  These  lands  for  the  most  part  are  ad- 
jacent to  large  centres  of  population,  with  excellent 
transportation  facilities  by  rail  and  water.  Their 
reclamation  would  give  employment  for  years  to  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  labourers,  and  later  would  af- 
ford opportunities  for  the  establishment  of  approxi- 
mately two  and  a  half  million  families  in  homes  of 
their  own.  Two  or  three  harvests  from  these  lands 
would  suffice  to  pay  the  entire  cost  of  reclamation. 

Then  when  we  contemplate  our  arid  and  semi-arid 
regions  the  possibilities  are  infinitely  more  stagger- 
ing in  their  magnitude.  These  regions,  roughly  esti- 
mated, include  two-fifths  of  our  continental  area,  ex- 
clusive of  Alaska.  Here  is  a  vast  empire  of  unparal- 
lelled  resource  of  soil,  diversity  of  topography,  and 
favourable  climate.  It  is  the  most  truly  American 


A  VISION  OF  THE  FUTURE  391 

part  of  America,  the  most  enterprising,  and  the  most 
unsettled.  It  is  peopled  with  a  larger  percentage  of 
our  native  born  than  New  England.  It  is  here  that 
the  remaining  public  lands  are  largely  located,  and 
their  acquirement  by  homemakers  cannot  proceed 
until  they  have  been  made  cultivable.  Beconnais- 
sance  surveys  and  stream-gauging  made  by  the  Gov- 
ernment during  the  past  twenty  years  have  given  us 
fairly  accurate  knowledge  of  the  conditions,  and  we 
are  able  to  predicate  reasonably  the  limits  of  future 
development.  : 

It  is  well  known  that  our  desert  areas  are  far  in 
excess  of  the  natural  water  supply.  While  the  for- 
mer include  several  hundred  millions  of  acres,  the 
latter  will  not  suffice  for  the  needs  of  more  than 
40,000,000  acres.  In  the  preparation  of  this  irriga- 
ble area  of  homemakers  the  construction  of  enor- 
mous engineering  works  for  storage  of  floods  will  be 
required.  Thousands  of  miles  of  main  canals  and 
ditches  must  be  laid  across  the  desert,  and  elaborate 
systems  of  distribution  must  be  planned. 

Here  is  a  territory  won  to  us  by  war,  treaty,  dis- 
covery, and  purchase.  Flying  at  one  time  the  flags 
of  four  nations,  its  history  is  rich  in  thrilling  incident 
and  adventure.  Its  milestones  are  the  bones  of  trap- 
pers, explorers,  and  pioneers.  Its  people  are  strong 
and  courageous.  To  battle  with  the  elemental  forces 
of  Nature  has  become  a  passion.  They  are  capti- 
vated by  the  immensity  of  the  field  in  which  they 
operate  and  the  majestic  scale  on  which  things  are 
done.  It  is  a  race  of  unequalled  energy  and  opti- 
mism. While  the  glamor  of  romance  which  en- 
wrapped this  region  in  years  agone  is  dispelled,  it  is 


392        EECLAIMING  THE  AKID  WEST 

still  romance-land  but  with  a  new  background.  The 
romance  of  creation  now  pervades  the  once  silent 
desert,  and  the  dominating  thought  and  impulse  of 
the  new  land  is  to  establish  here  the  well  ordered 
life  of  the  larger  West,  already  developed  in  the  set- 
tled portions  of  California,  Oregon,  Arizona,  etc., 
with  all  the  highly  organized  facilities  for  making  ex- 
istence in  the  country  attractive,  comfortable,  and 
sufficient.  There  are  many  communities  dwelling  to- 
day in  the  valleys  of  the  Snake  and  Yellowstone 
rivers  and  at  the  feet  of  the  snow-capped  Eockies  and 
Sierras,  to  whom  this  vision  and  hope  are  ever  pres- 
ent. 

Yet  these  are  not  the  only  people  whose  future 
needs  must  be  considered.  Many  economists  are 
agreed  that  when  the  Dove  of  Peace  builds  its  nest 
once  more  in  war-stricken  Europe  we  may  look  for 
a  return  wave  of  aliens,  probably  the  heaviest  known 
for  many  years.  In  addition  to  this  the  natural  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  our  citizens  who  attain  ma- 
jority makes  more  complex  the  problem  of  wise  dis- 
tribution in  order  that  congestion  in  our  great  cities 
may  be  prevented. 

It  is  an  economic  axiom  that  the  stability  of  a  na- 
tion is  assured  only  when  the  bulk  of  its  citizens 
reside  in  their  own  homes.  The  ideals  and  princi- 
ples for  which  our  forefathers  fought  cannot  be  pre- 
served and  maintained  by  a  citizenship  whose  inter- 
est in  our  Nation's  integrity  does  not  extend  beyond 
mere  wage  earning.  As  Secretary  Lane  aptly  put  it 
— "The  highest  sense  of  nationality  comes  from  a 
sense  of  purpose — a  sense  of  common  purpose — for 
the  United  States  is  not  yet  ours  in  the  proudest 


A  VISION  OF  THE  FUTUEE  393 

sense,  and  cannot  be  until  we  are  doing  all  that  can 
be  done  to  give  all  its  people  and  to  the  world  the 
full  expression  of  its  highest  intelligence  applied 
alike  to  its  resources  and  to  the  life  of  the  people." 
A  nation  of  tenement-dwellers  possesses  neither  in- 
clination nor  ability  to  defend  itself.  Making  provi- 
sion now  for  the  millions  of  aliens  who  will  flock  to 
our  shores  and  for  millions  of  our  sons  and  daugh- 
ters who  will  want  homes  of  their  own  is  at  least  as 
necessary  as  the  fortification  of  our  coasts  and  the 
enlargement  of  our  army  and  navy. 

Nations  like  Germany,  France,  and  England,  con- 
fronted with  the  same  problem,  find  its  solution  only 
in  the  acquirement  of  new  and  distant  territory. 
Thank  God  we  have  yet  within  our  own  imperial  do- 
main vast  areas  scarcely  touched  which  can  be  pre- 
pared for  our  homemakers.  The  Man  of  Destiny  for 
this  herculean  task  is  the  hydraulic  engineer. 
Though  colossal  in  its  magnitude,  the  work  never- 
theless is  so  practicable  and  feasible  that  no  doubt  of 
its  ultimate  accomplishment  clouds  the  mind  of  any- 
one. 

It  is  here,  with  this  latter  assurance  perfectly  in 
mind,  that  I  feel  impelled  to  utter  a  note  of  serious 
and  earnest  warning.  I  am  as  confident  of  the  ability 
of  our  engineers  to  solve  the  great  problems  involved, 
given  proper  time,  as  I  was  of  their  ability  to  build 
the  Panama  Canal  or  construct  the  Brooklyn  bridge. 
But  a  mighty  force  that  is  now  arising  to  give  tre- 
mendous anxiety  to  those  who  love  their  country  is 
that  of  'human  selfishness.  Nothing  can  cripple,  de- 
feat, and  completely  nullify  the  largest  efforts  of  the 
most  competent  and  unselfish  men  more  than  the  in- 


394:       EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

sidious  poison  of  selfishness  and  dishonesty.  Let  me 
be  clear  and  explicit. 

One  of  the  fundamentals  upon  which  the  work  of 
the  Reclamation  Service  is  based  is  that  of  a  revolv- 
ing fund  held  as  a  trust  for  the  benefit  of  present  and 
future  generations  and  to  be  used  over  and  over 
again.  To  do  this  it  is  necessary,  of  course,  that  the 
first  beneficiaries  repay  as  rapidly  as  possible  the 
amounts  expended  on  their  behalf.  The  whole 
scheme  fails  if  these  men,  having  profited  by  the  in- 
vestment, are  unable  or  neglectful  in  paying  back  the 
moneys  to  be  used  for  the  benefit  of  others. 

At  the  time  of  the  passage  of  the  Reclamation  Act 
predictions  were  made  that  after  the  fund  was  once 
expended,  the  persons  who  enjoyed  the  use  of  the 
works  thus  built  would  repudiate  their  obligations. 
This  charge  was  repelled  with  indignation  and  the 
members  of  Congress  from  the  West  pledged  for 
themselves  and  the  West  generally  that  there  would 
be  no  such  action  ever  taken. 

Now  while  it  is  true  that  outward  efforts  at  repu- 
diation have  been  promptly  denounced,  recent  action 
on  several  of  the  projects  has  led  me  to  fear  that  real 
repudiation  is  being  sought  by  subterfuge,  unjust  at- 
tacks, and  underhand  methods.  To  comprehend 
these  clearly  perhaps  the  best  procedure  is  for  me  to 
condense  the  statements  of  those  who  have  been  ac- 
tive in  the  campaign  which  has  been  carried  on  with 
a  view  to  ultimately  reaching  a  condition  where  the 
Reclamation  Fund  will  not  be  returned  to  the  Treas- 
ury or  at  least  for  so  many  years  that  it  becomes  un- 
available for  further  work. 

" Knock  and  hold  back"  is  the  favourite  phrase  of 


A  VISION  OF  THE  FUTUEE  395 

one  of  the  largest  land  owners  and  banker  on  a  suc- 
cessful Eeclamation  Project.  "If  we  continue  to 
complain  and  keep  up  an  incessant  bombardment  of 
our  senators,  representatives  and  the  higher  officials 
in  Washington,  we  will  never  be  compelled  to  return 
a  dollar  to  the  Eeclamation  Fund."  "And  why 
should  we!"  "It  is  true  that  land  values  have 
greatly  increased  and  the  country  has  been  lifted 
from  the  ruin  of  the  desert  to  highly  productive 
fields,  but  the  money  expended  for  the  purpose  was 
our  money,  taken  from  the  proceeds  of  lands  dis- 
posed of  in  the  West.  The  government  has  not  re- 
quired people  on  the  Eastern  seaboard  to  pay  for 
the  harbours  around  which  the  large  cities  have  de- 
veloped, nor  has  it  asked  the  farmers  on  the  great 
rivers  to  pay  for  the  levees  built  by  the  government 
to  protect  their  lands  from  overflow.  We  have  done 
enough  when  we  subdued  and  planted  the  lands  with- 
out paying  for  the  water  furnished  by  the  govern- 
ment. ' ' 

'  '  Moreover,  the  government  has  been  -extravagant 
and  has  built  more  and  larger  works  than  needed  and, 
at  any  rate,  we  should  not  pay  for  many  items.  All 
of  these  works,  even  though  built  by  engineers  of 
high  repute  and,  according  to  their  standards,  with 
economy  and  efficiency,  are  subject  to  criticism,  as 
are  all  human  undertakings,  and  if  we  keep  up  this 
criticism  right  and  left  and  do  not  admit  that  any- 
thing is  good,  we  will  ultimately  gain.  In  any  event, 
we  have  nothing  to  lose." 

"Moreover,  attacks  on  popular  officials  are  always 
popular.  A  candidate  running  for  office,  local,  state 
or  national,  can  always  arouse  interest  by  attacking 


396:       EECLAIMING  THE  AEID  WEST 

the  public  servants,  especially  those  tinder  Civil  Ser- 
vice, as  they  cannot  strike  back.  The  better  the  en- 
gineer and  the  higher  grade  the  man,  the  less  likely 
he  is  to  enter  into  controversies  and  the  easier  it  is 
to  disgust  him  to  the  point  where  he  will  outwardly 
confess  failure  by  leaving  the  locality. " 

"Even  though  it  is  urged  that  these  Keclamation 
Service  men  have  done  all  or  more  than  any  other 
men  might  have  done  under  the  circumstances,  yet 
this  does  not  prevent  our  freely  criticizing  them  for 
not  having  been  better  prophets  and  for  not  antici- 
pating conditions  which  have  developed. ' ' 

"Agitation,  irritation,  investigation;  this  is  the 
program  which  will  ultimately  lead  to  cutting  down 
the  amount  which  we  must  pay.  This  is  not  a  ques- 
tion of  fair  play  or  personal  feeling.  It  is  business, 
and  it  is  our  business  to  see  to  it  that  any  man  who 
opposes  our  plan  of  indefinitely  deferring  payment 
is  continually  attacked. " 

"It  is  an  old  saying  that:  *  Where  there  is  much 
smoke,  there  must  be  some  fire.'  If  we  keep  up  the 
smoke,  there  is  no  question  but  that  doubt  and  sus- 
picion will  begin  to  attach  and  whether  we  achieve 
all  of  our  objects  or  not,  we  can  at  least  get  some  con- 
cession. " 

The  above  are,  in  brief,  some  of  the  ideas  expressed 
by  men  who,  in  their  ordinary  commercial  dealings 
pride  themselves  on  following  the  rules  of  the  game, 
but  who  under  existing  circumstances  find  it  safe, 
popular  and  profitable  to  attack  the  public  servants 
of  the  Service  who  have  devoted  their  lives  to  the 
upbuilding  of  the  country. 

How  is  this  to  be  avoided?     The  situation  is  one 


A  VISION  OF  THE  FUTUEE  397 

which  cannot  be  continued  as  it  is  destroying  all 
hopes  of  continued  development  of  the  resources  of 
the  country.  It  is  obvious  that  the  money  prize  for 
attacking  and  discrediting  the  public  service  must 
be  removed.  As  long  as  a  community  believes  that 
it  can  gain  several  million  dollars  by  knocking,  or 
as  long  as  a  community  of  landowners  sees  that  the 
annual  payments  can  be  greatly  reduced  and  specu- 
lative values  of  lands  increased,  they  will  find  plenty 
of  excuse  to  attack  the  men  who  stand  in  the  way 
of  such  reduction.  Day  after  day  the  criticism  and 
attack  will  continue,  both  as  to  the  original  outlay 
and  as  to  the  daily  maintenance  of  the  works. 

Some  radical  change  must  be  made  which  will 
counteract  this  manifestation  of  greed  and  selfish- 
ness. One  method  is  that  of  securing  in  advance 
certain  assurances  as  regards  amount  and  methods 
of  payment,  putting  this  in  such  fashion  that  it  will 
not  be  to  the  interest  of  speculators  or  politicians 
running  for  office  to  find  an  advantage  to  keep  up 
the  attack.  It  will  always  be  the  claim  of  the  man 
seeking  office  that  if  he  is  elected  he  will  reduce 
taxes.  As  long,  therefore,  as  politicians  have  it  in 
their  power  to  extend  or  reduce  the  amount  to  be 
repaid  to  the  Government,  they  will  vie  with  each 
other  in  vilification  of  the  officials  of  the  Keclama- 
tion  Service  and  in  promises  of  future  benefits. 
Arrangements"  must  be  made  so  that  it  will  not  be 
within  the  province  of  the  politician  to  make  changes 
in  the  agreements  entered  into  or  to  interfere  with 
the  management  of  an  irrigation  system  built  by 
public  funds.  This  can  be  accomplished  by  build- 
ing the  new  projects  under  some  form  of  district  or- 


398        EECLAIMING  THE  ARID  WEST 

ganization  whose  securities  will  be  held  in  such  way 
as  not  to  permit  of  the  manipulation  of  the  general 
control  by  ambitious  politicians.  That  is  to  say,  if 
an  agreement  or  contract  is  entered  into  and  con- 
firmed by  the  courts,  it  is  conceivable  that  the  se- 
curities can  be  disposed  of  in  such  manner  as  to 
make  it  beyond  the  power  of  the  politician  or  specu- 
lator to  manipulate  the  proceeds. 

In  this,  or  some  similar  fashion,  the  funds  of  the 
Service  must  be  guarded  that  its  beneficent  work 
may  continue  indefinitely  until  all  the  waste  land  of 
our  vast  domain  is  reclaimed.  What  true  lover  of 
his  kind  can  contemplate  this  glorious  consumma- 
tion without  emotion,  without  that  deep  thrill  of 
satisfaction  that  can  be  given  to  man  in  no  other 
way  than  by  seeing  the  millions  of  his  fellowmen 
happy,  prosperous,  and  contented. 


INDEX 


Adams  Canal,  297 

Acequia,  Idaho,  147,  156 

Alkali's  effect  on  concrete  pipes, 
46,  47 

Anita,  Mont,  172 

Ankeny  Ditch,  296 

Anthony,  Tex.,  259 

Apache  Trail,  65 
building  of,  72 

Apaches,  Ton  to,  as  workmen,  75, 
76 

Area    of     Salt    River    drainage 

basin,  70 
Verde  River  drainage  basin,  70 

Argentina  irrigation  system,  390 

Arizona  Canal,  Arizona,  67 
prehistoric     irrigation     canals 
of,  66 

Arrey,  N.  M.,  262 

Arrowrock  Dam,  design  and  con- 
struction of,  142-143 

Arthur,  W.  S.,  manager  Willis- 
ton  Project,  270 

Ashfield  Canal,  182 

Ashton,  Idaho,  157 

Austin,  Colo.,  128 

Avalon    Dam,    design    and    con- 
struction of,  237,  238 

Badger  Creek,  Mont.,  368 
Baker's  Battleground,  162 
Ballantine,  Mont.,  172 
Banks,  F.  A.,  manager  Jackson 

Lake  Project,   160 
Bard,  Ariz.,  97 
Battle  Mountain,  Calif.,  226 
Bayard,  Neb.,  214 
Beaver  Creek  Valley,  Mont.,  183 
Belle   Fourchc,   S.   D.,    308,   314, 

315,  316 
Canals,    North    and    South, 

312-314 

Dam,    design    and    construc- 
tion of,  309-311 
distribution  system,  313 
Diversion  Dam,  308 
irrigation  system,  306-313 
Project,  irrigation  costs,  318 

399 


Belle  Fourche  Project,  continued 
location    and    area,    307, 

308 

River,  drainage  area,  307 
Valley,   crops   and  markets, 

315-318 
climate     and     soil,     314- 

317 

Benton  High  Line  Project,  350 
Berino,  Tex.,  259 
Big  Muddy  Creek,  Mont.,  385 
Porcupine  Creek,  Mont.,  385 
Stony  Creek  feed  canal,  110 
Billings,  Mont.,   169 
Birch  Creek,  Mont.,  368 
Black  River,  N.  M.,  238 
Blackfeet  Indian  Project,  367 
area  and  crops,  372,  373 
irrigation  plan,  368-371 
Blanchard,  C.  J.,  149 
Boise  Project,  area  and  physical 

features,  144 
climatic     and     agricultural 

features,  145 
farm  units,  145 
telephone  system  of,  143 
River,  138 

Dam,  location  and  construc- 
tion of,  139,  140 
Bond,  J.   B.,  manager  Klamath 

Project,  305 
Bouse,  Ariz.,  97 
Bowdoin  Canal,  182 
Bowmont,  Idaho,  144 
Brazito  grant,  Tex.,  259 
Bridge  and  fence  building  by  the 

Service,  48,  49 
Bridgeport,  Neb.,  214 
Bridges  and  roads  built,  388 
Browning,  Mont.,  187,  373 
Bryce,  Hon.  James,  179 
Buildings  erected,  total,  388 
Buford,  N.  D.,  269 
Buford-Trenton  unit,  268 
Bull  Mountain,  Mont.,  172 

Station,  Mont.,  162 
Burch,   A.    N.,   manager   Orland 
Project,   115 


400 


INDEX 


Burley,  Idaho,  147,  155,  157 

sugar  factory,  155 
Butte,  Mont.,  194 

Creek,  S.  D.,  307 
Byron,  Wash.,  349 


Caldwell,  Idaho,  144 
California  fruit  culture,  103-105 
California-Oregon  Trail,  202 
Canal,  Adams,  297 

Arizona,  67 

Ashfield,  182 

Bowdoin,  182 

Consolidated,  Ariz.,  67 

Cross-Cut,  67 

Dodson  South,  182 

East  Uncompahgre,  130 

Fort  Laramie,  206,  215 

Fort  Shaw,  190 

Franklin,  259 

Frannie,  Wyo.,  360 

Grand,  Ariz.,  67 

Grand  Valley,  118 

Griffith,  298 

Highline,  Ariz.,  67 

Highline,  Wyo.,  360 

Interstate,  206 

Keno,  297 

Keno  Power,  300 

Lake  Shore,  323 

Leasburg,  257 

Main  Klamath,  298 

Maricopa,  67 

Mesa,  67 

North  Belle  Fourche,  312 

Picacho,  258 

Pishkun,  190 

St.  Mary's,  43 

Salt  River  Valley,  67 

San  Francisco,  67 

South  Belle  Fourche,  312 

South  Branch,  Klamath,  299 

South  Main  Orland,  110 

South  Uncompahgre,  133 

Sun  River  Slope,  190 

Temple,  67 

Utah,  67 

Willwood,  Wyo.,  360 

Wormser,  67 

systems  at  Milk  River  Project, 

181-183 

Canals,  prehistoric  irrigation,  of 
Arizona,  66 


Carlsbad  Project,  area  and  crops, 

240 

plan  of,  236 

Carr,  Jesse  D.,  Land  and  Live- 
stock Co.,  297 
Carson  Lake,  218 
River,  218 

Diversion  Dam,  226 
Sink,  218 
Casteel,  Calvin,  manager  Okano- 

gan  Project,  333 
Cedar  Ridge,  Colo.,  128 
Cement,  barrels  used,  388 

mill  at  Roosevelt  Dam,  73 
Cemetery  reservations  set  apart, 

49 

Chamberino,  NV  M.,  262 
Chandler,  Ariz.,  82 
Cities  and  towns  of  Salt  River 

Valley,  82 

Clear  Lake,  290,  291,  295,  297 
Dam,  298 
reservoir,  298 

Clinton  District,  Utah,  321,  325 
Cold  Springs  Dam,  plan  and  con- 
struction, 277 
Canyon,  275 
Cole,  D.  W.,  360 
Colona,  Colo.,  128 
Colorado    River,    annual   deposit 

of  silt,  91 

characteristics   of,   86-88 
valley,  fertility  of,  92 
Columbia  River,  326 

Valley,  283 

Colville  Indian  Reservation,  326 
Conconully,  Wash.,   328 

Dam,  design  and  construction, 

329 

Reservoir  Co.,  327 
Concrete,  effects  of  alkali  on,  46, 

47 
Cone,  William  S.,  manager  Salt 

River  Project,  85 
Congress,    discusses    and    passes 
Reclamation  Act,   15-18 
Connor,    R.    M.,    manager    Fort 

Peck  Prospect,  386 
Conquistador es,  the  Spanish,  250 
Consolidated  Canal,  Arizona,  67 
Construction  of   Roosevelt   Dam, 

73-76 

Contractors'   errors  and  difficul- 
ties, 42 


INDEX 


401 


Corbett  Dam,  360 

Diversion     Dam,     design    and 

construction,  359 
Tunnel,   359 
Cost  of  land  at  Huntley  Project, 

164 

Klamath  Project,  304 
Minidoka  Project,  150 
Milk  Eiver  Project,  187 
North  Platte  Project,  216 
Okanogan    Project,    333 
Salt  River  Project,  83 
Umatilla  Project,  281 
Yakima  Project,  349 
Yuma  Valley,  101 
Costs,    early    errors    in    estimat- 
ing, 38-41 
of  irrigation  at  Belle  Fourche 

Project,   318 
Carlsbad   Project,   240 
Lower     Yellowstone     Pro- 
ject,   199 

North  Platte  Project,  209 
Okanogan  Project,  333 
Salt  River  Project,  83 
Shoshone  Project,  364 
Uncompahgre  Project,  135 
Williston  Project,   270 
Yakima  Project,  349 
Yuma  Project,  102 
of  Salt  River  Project,  84 
total  of  Reclamation  Service,388 
Cotton    growing    in    Salt    River 

Valley,   81 

Cowiche  Creek,  Wash.,  347 
Crater  Lake,  291 
Crops  at  Blackfeet  Indian  Proj- 
ect, 373 

Carlsbad  Project,  240 
Flathead  Indian  Project,  383 
Huntley  Project,  173 
Klamath  Project,  301-304 
Milk  River  Project,  186 
North  Platte  Project,  211,  212 
Okanogan  Prospect,  332 
Rio  Grande  Project,  260 
Shoshone  Project,  362,  363 
Truckee— Carson    Project,    230, 

231 

Umatilla  Project,  285-287 
Yakima  Project,  343-349 
the  Yuma  Valley,  94-96 
under  irrigation  in  Salt  River 
Valley,  81,  82 


Cross-Cut  Canal,  Ariz.,  67 

Crow  Creek,  Mont.,  375 

S.  D.,  309 
Indian  Reservation,  165 

Crowe,  F.  T.,  manager  Flathead 
Indian  Project,  384 

Crown  Butte  Ditch  Company,  en- 
gineering problems  of, 
47,  48 

Culverts,  total  built,  388 

Cunha,  Joseph,  288 

Cushing,  Lieut.  Frank  H.,  65 

Cut  Bank  Creek,  Mont.,  368 

Dam,   Arrowrock,   142 
Avalon,  236,  237 
Belle  Fourche,  309 
Belle  Fourche  Diversion,  308 
Big  Stony  Creek,  110 
Boise  River,  139 
Carson  River  Diversion,  226 
Clear  Lake,  298 
Cold  Springs,  277 
Conconully,  328 
Corbett,  360 
Corbett  Diversion,  359 
Dodson  Diversion,   181 
East  Park,  109 
Elephant  Butte,  255 
El  Paso,  259 
Glendive  Diversion,  195 
Grand  Valley,  123 
Granite  Reef,  78 
Gunnison  Diversion,   131 
Hondo  Diversion,  247 
Laguna,  90 
Lahontan,  222 
Lake  Alice,  207 
Las  Cruces,  258 
Leasburg,  257 
Lost  River,  298 
Lost  River  Diversion,  299 
Medicine  Bluff  Creek,  273 
Minidoka,    152 
Minitare,  207 
Pathfinder,  204-206 
Pecos  River,  240 
Roosevelt,  73-76 
Sherburne  Lakes,  184,  185 
Shoshone,  356 
Sun  River  Diversion,   190 
Three-Mile     Falls      Diversion, 

283 
Truckee  Diversion,  224 


402 


INDEX 


Dam,  continued 

Umatilla  Diversion,  276 
Vandalia  Diversion,  183,  184 
Wilson's  Bridge,  299 
Dark  Canyon,  N.  M.,  238 
Davis,  Arthur  P.,  68,  89,  248,  275 
Deadwood,  S.  D.,  317 
Deep  Creek,  Mont.,  189,  190 
Deer    Flat    Reservoir,    138,    139, 

141 

Dellenbaugh,  F.  S.,  86 
Delta,  Colo.,   128 
Demonstration    Farms    provided 

for,  54 

Derry,  N.  M.,  262 
Desert  area  in  United  States,  390 

391 
Diamond    Fork    District,    Utah, 

321,  325 
Dibble,    Barry,    manager    Mini- 

doka  Project,  157 
Distribution  system  of  the  Salt 

River  Project,  78 
District      ( irrigation ) ,     defined, 

321 

Dixon,  Mont.,  384 
Dodson,  Mont.,  181 

Diversion  Dam,  site  and  plan, 

181 

North  Canal,  183 
South  Canal,   182 
Dona    Ana     Community    Ditch, 

Tex.,  258 

Donna  Ana.,  N.  M.,  262 
Drainage  problems  overcome,  44 
Dry  Creek,  S.  D.,  307 


East    Park    Dam,    location    and 

construction,    109 
reservoir,  108 

Echo,  Ore.,  276 

Egypt,  irrigation  in,  390 

Electric    power-system     in     Salt 
River  Project,  84 

Electrical    plants    at    Minidoka 
Project,  154 

Electricity,  development  of  upon 

the  projects,  59 
use     of     in     construction     of 
Roosevelt  Dam,   74 

Elephant  Butte,  N.  M.,  262 

Dam,    design    and    construc- 
tion, 255,  256 


Elephant  Butte,  continued 

Water     Users'     Association, 

262 

Ellensburg,  Wash.,  345 
El  Paso,  Tex.,  262 
Dam,  259 
Valley,  Tex.,  256 
Valley  Water   Users'  Associa- 
tion, 262 
Engineering     problems     at     St. 

Mary's  River,  43 
initial  difficulties,  6-10 
Engineers'    difficulties    in    prede- 
termining costs,   39-41 
Errors   and   difficulties   in   early 
days  of  the  Reclamation 
Service,  35-52 
Excavation,  total  yards,  388 

Fallen,  Calif.,  226,  232 
Farm  units,   31 

Boise  Project,  145 
Huntley  Project,  167,  174 
Lower   Yellowstone   Project, 

199 

Minidoka  Project,  157 
North  Platte  Project,  216 
Sun  River  Project,  194 
Truckee-Carson  Project,  230 
Umatilla  Project,  288 
Uncompahgre  Project,  136 
Yuma  Project,   100 
Farmers'  Institutes,  55 

instructed  and  advised,  54-56 
Fence  and  bridge  building  by  the 

Service,  48,  49 
Fernley,  Calif.,  224,  232 
Fertility  of  arid  countries,  con- 
flicting theories,  26,  27 
Fifield,  R.  H.,  manager  Huntley 

Project,  175 

Finley  Creek,  Mont.,  375 
Flathead    Indian    Project,    area 
and     physical    features, 
373-375 

irrigation  plan,  380 
Jocko   Unit,  381 
soil   and    crops,   383 
Lake,  374,  380 
River,  374 

Flumes,  total  built,  388 
Fort    Belknap    Indian    Reserva- 
tion, 182 
Laramie  Canal,  206,  215 


INDEX 


403 


Fort    Peck    Indian    Reservation, 

384 

Project,  irrigation  plan,  385 
land  costs,  386 
Little  Porcupine  Unit,  385 
Shaw,  Mont.,  194 
Canal,  190 

cemetery  reservation,  49 
Military  Reservation,  189 
Sill  Indian  School,  274 

Military  Reservation,   273 
Stanton,  N.  M.,  244 
Foster,  L.  E.,  manager  Carlsbad 

Project,  241 
Fowler,  B.  A.,  69 
Franklin  Canal,  259 
Frannie  Canal,  Wyo.,  360 
Frazer,  Mont.,  385 
Fremont,  John  C.,  201-203 
Fruit  culture  in  California,  103- 

105 
Fruitdale,  S.  D.,  314 

Gadsen,  Ariz.,  97 
Gagnon,  E.  H.,  172 
Galpin  Bottom,  Mont.,  385 
Garfield,  N.  M.,  262 
Garnet  Mesa  Siphon,  131 
Gering,  Neb.,  215 
Gila  River,  367 

valley,      prehistoric     canals 

in,  66 

Gilbert,  Ariz.,  82 
Glendale,  Ariz.,  82 
Glendive,  Mont.,  195 

Diversion     Dam,     design    and 

construction,    195-198 
Gore  Canyon,  Colo.,  116 
Goshen  Valley,  Utah,  321 
Grand  Canal,  Ariz.,  67 
River,  Colo.,  116 
Valley  Canal,  118 
Dam,    design    and   construc- 
tion, 123 
Project,    area    and   physical 

features,  124 

delays  and  failure  of   co- 
operative plans,  120-122 
early    co-operative    plans, 

119-121 

location  of,  116 
Association,   120,   121,  122 
Grandview,   Wash.,   349 
Granger,  Wash.,  349 


Granite  Reef,  73 

Dam,  78 

Great  Falls,  Mont.,  189,  193 
Greenleaf,  Idaho,  144 
Griffith  Canal,  298 
Guernsey,  Wyo.,  214 
Gunnison  Diversion  Dam,  131 

River,  131,  132 

Tunnel,  construction  of,  131 
opening  of,  133 

Hagerman,  J.  J.,  245 

Haig,  Neb.,  215 

Hall,  B.  M.,  89 

Hambright  Creek,  Calif.,  110 

Hansbrough,  Senator,  introduces 

Reclamation  Act,  16 
Harper,    S.    O.,    manager    Grand 

Valley  Project,  124 
Hatch,  N.  M.,  262 
Hay  den,    B.    E.,    manager    Belle 

Fourche  Project,  318 
Hazen,  Calif.,  226 
Helena,  Mont.,  194 
Henry,  Neb.,  214 
Hermiston,  Ore.,  277,  288 
Heyburn,  Idaho,  147,  155,  157 
Highline   Canal,   Ariz.,    67 

Wyo.,  360 
Division,      Shoshone     Project, 

360 

Unit,  Utah,  321,  324 
Hilgard,  Prof.  E.  W,,  25 
Hill,  Louis  C.,  75,  256 
Hobble  Creek,  Utah,  324 
Homestead  laws,  abuse  of,  22,  23 
Hondo  Project,  construction  and 
abandonment,    43,    243- 
248 

River  Dam,  247 
Horse  Fly  Lake,  290 

reservoir,   291 
Hot  Springs,  N.  M.,  262 
Hubbart  Lake,  380 
Humphreys,  T.  H.,  108 
Huntley,  Mont.,   162,   172,  175 
Project,  authorization  of,  165 
crop  and  stock  values,  173 
cost  of  land,   164 
development  of,   170-172 
farm  units  of,  167,  174 
irrigation  plan  of,  168 
opening  of,  169-170 
physical  features,  163 


404 


INDEX 


Huntley  Project,  continued 
public  land  at,  174 
reclamation  costs,  165 
site  and  area,  162 

Huston,  Idaho,  144 

Idaho-Iowa  Lateral  and  Reser- 
voir Co.,  140 

Impatience  of  early  settlers  on 
Reclamation  Projects, 
36,  37 

India,  irrigation  in,  390 
Indian  Creek,  S.  D.,  312 

Utah,  319 
Pima,  367 
Intake,  Mont.,  200 
Interstate  Canal,  206 
Irrigable  area  of  Yuma  Project, 

99 

Irrigated  lands,  early  safeguard- 
ing of,  23 
Irrigation  canals,  prehistoric,  of 

Arizona,  66 
costs  at  Belle  Fourche  Project, 

318 

KJamuth  Project,  305 
Okanogan  Project,  333 
Shoshone   Project,   364 
Yakima  Project,  349 
district,  defined,  321 
in   Salt  River  Valley,  results 

of,  81-85 
unit,  defined,  321 
Irrigon,  Ore.,  282 

Jackson  Lake,  Idaho,  151 
Project,  158-160 
Reservoir,  history  of,   159 
Jocko  Lake,  375 
River,  375 

Unit   of   the   Flathead  Indian 
Project,  381 

Kennewick,  Wash.,  350 
Keno  Canal,  297 

Power   Canal,   298,   300 
Kirk,  Ore.,  301 
Kittitas  Basin,  Wash.,  344 
Klamath.  Basin,  290-294 

riparian  rights  existing,  293 

Canal  Co.,  297 

Falls,  Ore.,  298 
Irrigating  Co.,  296 


Klamath,  continued 
Main  Canal,  298,  299 
Project,     area     and     physical 
features,   294,   295,   296 
climate,  292 

crops  and  markets,   302-305 
development  of,   295-300 
land  costs  at,  304 
River,  290,  295 
Kopa,  Ariz.,  97 
Kuna,  Idaho,  144 
Kuhn  Irrigation  and  Canal  Co., 
159 


La  Mesa,  N.  M.,  262 
La  Union,  N.  M.,  262 
Laguna    Dam,    design    and    con- 
struction, 90-99 

Lahontan  Dam,  design  and  con- 
struction, 222,  223 
power  plant,  225 
reservoir,  222 
Lake  Alice,  Wyo.,  207 
Alice  Dam,  207 
Avalon,   236 
Lahontan,  218 
Lawtonka,  271 
McMillan,  236,  239 
Minitare,  Wyo.,   207 
Shore  Canal,  323 
Shore  Company,  323 
Shore  Unit,  Utah,  321,  323 
Tahoe,  217,  220 
Walcott,  Idaho,   148,  151 
Land  cost  at  Fort  Peck  Project, 

386 

Huntley  Project,  164 
Klamuth  Project,  304 
Lower  Yellowstone  Project, 

199 

Minidoka  Project,  150 
Milk  River  Project,  187 
Okanogan   Project,   333 
Or  land  Project,  112,  115 
Umatilla  Project,  281 
Yakima  Project,  349 
Yuma  Valley,  101 
System,     outlined     by     Major 

Powell,  2-5 

Landlordism  discouraged  by  Rec- 
lamation Act,  30,  31 
Las  Cruces,  N.  M.,  262 
Las  Cruces  Dam,  258 


INDEX 


405 


Las    Cruces    Community    Ditch, 

Tex.,  258 

Las  Palomas,  N.  M.,  262 
Lauzon,  L.  C.,  131 
Lawson,    L.    M.,    manager    Rio 

Grande  Project,  202 
Lawton,  Okla.,  274 

Project,  area  and  climate,  271, 

272 

Lead,  S.  D.,  317 
Leasburg,  N.  M.,  262 
Canal,  257,  258 
Dam,  design  and  construction, 

257 
Lemon  Home  Water,  Power  and 

Light  Co.,  106 
Leon,  M'ont.,  384 
Lingle,  Wyo.,  214 
Link  River,  291,  296,  297 
Lippencott,  J.  B.,  89 
Little  Bitter  Root  River,  375 
Medicine    Bluff    Creek,    Okla., 

271 

Muddy  River,  264 
Porcupine  Creek,  Mont.,  385 
Unit  of  Fort  Peck  Project, 

385 

Littlepage,  Mrs.  Louella,  56 
Lost  River,  Ore.,  290,  295,  296 
Dam,  298 
Diversion  Dam,  299 

Works,  298 
Lovelocks,  Calif.,  226 
Lower  Klamath  Lake,  292,  295, 

301 
Yellowstone  Project,   198-200 

agricultural   features,    200 
Lytel,  J.  L.,  manager  Strawberry 
Valley  Project,  325 


McDonald  Lake,  380 

McGrew,  Neb.,  215 

Mabton,  Wash.,  349 

Main    Canal,    Carlsbad    Project, 

238 

Malta,  Mont.,  183,  187 
Mapleton  Unit,  Utah,  321,  324 
Maricopa  Canal,  67 
Markets  for  Boise  Project,  145 

Grand  Valley  Project,  124 

Huntley  Project,  174 

Lower     Yellowstone     Project, 
199 


Markets,  continued 

Milk  River  Project,  156 
Minidoka  Project,  157 
North  Platte  Project,  213 
Orland  Project,  114 
Rio  Grande  Project,  262 
Salt  River  Project,  82 
Sun  River  Project,  193 
Truckee-Carson  Project,   232 
Umatilla  Project,   288 
Uncompahgre  Project,  135 
Williston  Project,  269,  274 
Yakima  Project,  345-349 
Yuma  Project,  96 
Maxwell,  George  H.,  13,  14,  69 
Land  and  Irrigation  Co.,  280. 

281 
Medicine  Bluff  Creek,  Okla.,  271 

Dam,  273 
Melba,  Idaho,  144 
Melbeta,  Neb.,  215 
Meridian,  Idaho,  144 
Merrill,  Ore.,  297 
Mesa,  Ariz.,  82 

Ariz.,     bond     issue    for     Salt 

River  Project,  72 
Canal,   Ariz.,  67 
Mesilla,  N.  M.,  262 

Community  Ditch,  Tex.,  258 
Mesilla  Valley,  Tex.,  256 
Mesquite,  N.  M.,  259,  262 
Milk  River,  176-177 

Project,     crops     and    stock, 

186 

engineering  and  interna- 
tional problems,  177- 
180 

land  cost  at,  187 
climatic     and     agricultural 

features,  186 
geological    formation,     177, 

178 

Miller  Creek,  291 
Minidoka  Dam,  design  and  con- 
struction of,  152 
Project,   agricultural   features, 

156 
area   and   physical   features, 

148-150 

cost  of  land,  150 
early  history  of,  146-148 
electrical     development     at. 

154 
farm  units  of,  157 


406 


INDEX 


Minitare,  Neb.,  214 

Dam,  207 

Mission  Creek,  Mont.,  375 
Missouri  River,  floating  pumping 

barges,  267 
Valley,  265-266 
Mitchell,  Neb.,  214 

L.  H.,  manager  Lower  Yellow- 
stone Project,  200 
Montrose,  Colo.,  127,  128 
Moran,  Wyoming,  159,  160 
Morrill,  Neb.,  214 
Moxee  Valley,  Wash.,  346 
Mud  Creek,  Mont.,  375 

Nampa,  Idaho,  144 
National      Irrigation      Congress, 
ninth  annual  session,  14 
Natural  springs,  disposal  of,  45 
Nelson  Reservoir,  182,  183 
New  Mexico  Reservoir  and  Irri- 
gation Co.,  245 

New  York  Canal  Co.,  140,  143 
Newell,  F.  H.,  first  Chief  Engi- 
neer of  the  Reclamation 
Service,    14-18,   32 
Herbert  D.,  manager  Umatilla 

Project,    288 
S.  D.,  314 

Newlands,  Francis  G.,  activities 
in  behalf  of  the  Recla- 
mation Act  in  56th  and 
57th  Congresses,   15-18 
Newton,  Mont.,  172 
Nisland,  S.  D.,  314 
North    Platte    Project,    climate, 
area    and    soil,    208-211 
cost  of  irrigation,  209 
cost  of  land,  216 
farm  units,  216 
location,   204 
River,  201 

run-off,  204 

Valley,  romance  of,  201 
Yakima,  Wash.,  345 

Okanogan     Project,     area     and 

products,  331-333 
climate  and  soil,  332,  333 
costs  of  land,  333 
irrigation  cost,  333 
irrigation  system,  329-331 
pumping  plants,  330 
River,  326 


Okanogan,  continued 

Wash.,  332 

Oklahoma  City,  Okla.,  274 
Ola  the,  Colo.,  128 
Old  Mesilla,  N.  M.,  262 
Omak,  Wash.,  332 
Orange    industry    of    California, 

104 

Orland,  Calif.,  115 
Project,  area  of,  113 
cost  of  land  in,  112,  115 
dairying  and  orange  indus- 
try, 114 

location  of,  105,  106 
opening  of,  113,  115 
Unit  Water  Users'  Association, 

107,  108 

Osborn,  Mont.,  172 
Ouray,  Colo.,  127 
Outlook,  Wash.,  349 
Owl  Creek,  S.  D.,  307,  312 

Pablo  Lake,  380 
Palisade,  Colo.,  116 
Palomas  Valley,  Texas,  256 
Parker,  Arizona,  89 
Pasco,  Wash.,  350 
Pathfinder  Dam,  design  and  con- 
struction, 204-206 
reservoir,  205 
Payette  Valley,  137 
Pay  son,  Utah,  321 
Pecos  Forest  Reserve,  235 

Irrigation     and     Improvement 

Co.,  245 
Co.,  235,  236 
wrecked     by     engineering 

difficulties,  43 
River,  234,  235 

Dam,  240 

Penasco  Rock,  Tex.,  257 
Peoria,  Ariz.,  82 
Pettigrew,  Senator,  16 
Phoenix,  Ariz.,  attractions  of,  82 
bond    issue    for    Salt    River 

project,  72 
origin  of  name,  66 
Water  Users'  Association,  69 
Picacho  Canal,  258 
Pima  Indian  Project,  367 
Pipe  lines,  total  miles,  388 
Pishkun    Canal    and    Reservoir, 

190 
Pooatello,  Idaho,  157 


INDEX 


407 


Poison,  Mont.,  383,  384 

Pompey's  Pillar,  Mont.,  161,  172 

Poplar  River,  Mont.,  385 

Post  Creek,  Mont.,  375 

Potholes,  Calif.,  97 

Powell,  Wyo.,  359,  364 
Major  John  Wesley,  report  on 
"Lands  of  the  Arid  Re- 
gion" in  1878,  2 
first  outlines   a  "Land  Sys- 
tem," 3-5 

early  opposition  to  his  rec- 
lamation plans,  5,  6 

Power  plant  at  Boise  River  Dam, 

140 
Lahontan,  225 

Power-plants  in  Salt.  River  Proj- 
ect, 79 

Minidoka  Project,   154,  155 
system  in  the  Salt  River  Proj- 
ect, 84 

Prehistoric  irrigation  canals  of 
Arizona,  66 

Project  Managers,  85,  102,  115, 
124,  136,  145,  157,  175, 
187,  194,  200,  216,  233, 
241,  262,  270,  274,  288, 
305,  318,  325,  333,  350, 
365,  373,  384,  386 

Prosser,  Wash.,  349 

Provo,  Utah,  325 

Public  lands  at  Huntley  Project, 

174 
Sun  River  Project,  194 

Pueblo  Indians,  New  Mexico,  234 

Pumping  barges,  floating,  267 
plants  at  Okanogan,  330 

Pyle,  Fred  D.,  manager  Un- 
compahgre  Project,  136 

Pyramid  Lake,  218 

Quinton,  J.  H.,  89 

Railroads,  total  miles  built,  388 
Ralston,  Wyo.,  359 
Ravilli,  Mont.,  384 
Reclamation   achievements,   387- 

389 
Act,   becomes   a  law  in    1902, 

18-20 
discourages  landlordism  and 

speculation,  30,  31,  61 
Dr.   NewelPs  account  of  its 
origin  and  passage,  14- 
18 


Reclamation  Act,  continued 

individual    work    leading   to 

its  passage,  2-12 
Projects,  farm  units  upon,  31 
Service,  early  errors  and  diffi- 
culties, 35-48 
early  opposition  to,  6-10 
disposal  of  natural  springs, 

45,   46 

first    takes    charge    of    Salt 

River  irrigation,  69,  70 

method  of  preventing  waste 

of  water,  44,  45 
modern      interpretation      of 
"riparian  rights,"  28,  29 
necessarily    a    governmental 

function,  24 
organization  of,  32 
plans  of  Major  Powell,  4-6 
provides  for  instruction  and 
advice  to  farmers,  54-56 
road  and  bridge  building,  48, 

49,  388 

Settlement  Service  of,  50,  51 
total  reservoir  capacity,  387 
Redwater  River,  307 
Repudiation       of       Reclamation 

costs,  41 

Reservoir  capacity,  total,  387 
Reservation,     Fort    Shaw    Mili- 
tary, 189 

Fort  Sill  Military,  273 
Indian,  Blackfeet,  367 
Colville,  326 
Crow,  165 
Flathead,  378 
Fort  Belknap,  182 
Fort  Peck,  384 
Uintah,  118 
Ute,   118 
Yakima,  350 
Yuma,  100 

Richland,  Wash.,   350 
Rights   of  way  obtained  by  the 

Service,  48 
Rincon,  N.  M'.,  262 
Valley,  Tex.,  256 
Rio  Bonito  River,  243 
Hondo  River,  243 
Grande  Project,  area  and  cli- 
mate, 261 
crops    and    markets,    261. 

262 
plan  and  area,  253-255 


408 


INDEX 


Rio  Grande  River,  252-254 

Ruidoso  River,  243 
Riparian  rights,  modern  concep- 
tion of,  28,  29 
Riverside,  Wash.,  332 

Washington    navel-orange    in- 
dustry, 104 
Road  and  bridge  building  by  the 

Service,  48,  49,  388 
Rochester,  Calif.,  226 
Ronan,  Mont.,  383,  384 
Roosevelt  Dam,  cement  mill  at, 

73 

construction  of,  73-76 
cost  of  cement  used,  73 
first  stone  laid,  80 
location    and    surroundings, 

71 

reservoir  statistics,  77 
scenic  attractions  near,   77, 

78 
Theodore,  12 

calls  attention  to  irrigation 
project  in  his  first  mes- 
sage, 17,  19 

dedicates  Roosevelt  Dam,  80 
Roswell,  N.  M.,  244 
Round  Butte,  Mont.,  384 
Rupert,  Idaho,  147,  155,  157 

Sacramento  Valley  Development 

Association,  107 
St.  Ignatius  Mission,  376,  377 
St.  Mary  River,  178 

Canal,    engineering    problems, 

43 

Lake,  Mont.,  184,  380 
Salem,  N.  M.,  262 
Salmon  Creek,  Wash.,  326,  327 
Lake,  327,  328 

Reservoir,  328 

Salt  River,  annual  run-off,  71 
Canyon,  65 
Project,  complete  system  of, 

84 

cost  of,  84 
cost  of  land  in,  83 
distribution  system  of,  78 
facts  concerning,  70 
first  planned,  70 
location  of,  70 
opening  of,  83 
pumping  stations,  78 
Valley  Canal,  67 


Salt  River,  continued 

cities  and  towns  of,  82 
early  irrigation  canal  sys- 
tems, 66,  67 

failures  of  first  irrigation 
projects,  67,  68 
power  plants,  79 
prehistoric  canals  in,  60 
results  of   irrigation,   81- 

85 
Water   Users'   Association 

organized,  70 
contracts   to   build  power 

plants,  79 

Water  Users'  Association,  to 
take    over    Salt    River 
Project,  83 
San    Fran  isco    Canal,    Arizona, 

67 
San     Marcos     Hotel,     Chandler, 

Ariz.,  82 

San  Miguel,  N.  M.,  262 
Sander,  W.  H.,  89 
Sanford,   Geo.   O.,  manager  Sho- 

shone  Project,  365 
Santa  Teresa,  N.  M.,  262 
Santo  Toinas  grant,  Tex.,  259 
Savage,  Mont.,  200 

H.  N.,  89,  360 

Schilling,  H.  M.,  manager  Willis- 
ton  Project,  274 
Schlecht,  W.  W.,  manager  Yunaa 

project,  102 
Scott's  Bluff,  Neb.,  214 
Scottsdale,  Ariz.,  82 
Selah  Valley,  Wash.,  346 
Selden,  N.  M.,  262 
Sellew,  Francis  L.,  99 
Settlement  Service  of  the  Recla- 
mation Service,  50,  51 
Sherburne  Lake  Dam,   184,   185 
Shoehone  Dam,  design  and  con- 
struction, 356-359 
Indians,  351 

Project  area  and  physical  fea- 
tures, 352-353 
climate  and  soil,  353,  354 
crops  and  markets,  362-364 
Highline  Division,  360 
irrigation  costs,  364 
irrigation  system,  354,  355 
Willwood  Division,  360 
River,  352,  353 
Skillman,  F.  L.,  172 


INDEX 


409 


Smith,  John  Y.  T.,  66 
Smoke  Creek,  Mont.,  385 
Smythe,  William  E.,  13,  20 
Snake  River  Valley,  137 
Snell,  R.  M.,  manager  Blackfeet 

Indian  Project,  373 
manager    St.    Mary's    Storage 

Unit,  187 
Soldier  Fork  District,  Utah,  321, 

325 

Somerset,  Colo.,  97,  127 
South   Branch    Canal,   Klamath, 

299 
Main    Canal,    Orland    project, 

110,  111 

Platte  Valley,  203 
Spanish  Fork  East  Branch  Irri- 
gation &  Mfg.  Co.,  322 
River,  319 
South   Field  Irrigation   Co., 

323 
Southeast     Irrigation      Co., 

323 

Unit,  Utah,  321,  322 
West    Field   Irrigation    Co., 

323 
Speculators       and       politicians 

fought  against,  61 
Sprague  River,  291 
State    speculation    in    irrigated 

lands  checked,  30,  31 
Statistics   of   Reclamation   Serv- 
ice, 387-389 
Stinking  River,  352 
Stony     Creek     Irrigation     Com- 
pany, 106 
survey,  107 
Stratton,  Geo.  E.,  manager  Milk 

River  Project,  187 
Strawberry  River,  Utah,  319 
Valley  Project,  area  and  units, 

320,  321 

climate  and  soil,  319 
irrigation  plan,  319-320 
Sturgis,  S.  D.,  318 
Summit  Lake  Irrigation  Co.,  297 
Sun  River  Diversion  Dam,  190 
Project    area    and    physical 

features,   189 
cemetery  reservation,  49 
climatic    and    agricultural 

features,  191-193 
farm  units  at,  194 
location,  188 


Sun  River  Project,  continued 

plan  of  canal  system,  189, 

190 

public  land  at,  194 
railroad  facilities,  191 
results  of  alkali  action  on, 

46 

Slope  Canal,  190 
Sunnyside  Unit  of  Yakima  Proj- 
ect, 348 
Wash.,  349 

Superintendents  of  Farming  pro- 
vided, 55 

Swan  River,  Mont.,  374 
Swilling  Ditch,  in  the  Salt  River 
Valley,  66 

Telephone     lines,      total     miles 

built,  388 

system  of  Boise  Project,   143 
Tempe,  Ariz.,  82 
Tempe  Canal,  Ariz.,  67 
Teton  River,  188,  189 
Thistle  Creek,  Utah,  325 
Three-Mile  Falls  Diversion  Dam, 
design  and  construction, 
283 
Tieton  River,  Wash.,  347 

Unit  of  Yakima  Project,  346 
Tiffany,  R.  K.,  manager  Yakima 

Project,  350 
Tonto  Apaches,  as  workmen,  75, 

76 

Creek,  71 

Torrington,  Wyo.,  214 
Trail  Hollow  Creek,  Utah,  319 
Trenton,  N.  D.,  269 
Truckee-'Carson      Project,     area 
and     physical    features, 
227,  228 
crops    and    markets,    230, 

231 
example  of  increased  costs, 

41 

farm  units,  230 
location     and    area,     221, 

222 

soil  and  climate,  229 
Truckee    Diversion    Dam,    design 
and    construction,     224, 
225 

River,  217 

Tule  Lake,  290,  292,  296,  298 
marshes,  289 


410 


INDEX 


Twin  Falls  Canal  Co.,  159 

Idaho,  153 
Two  Medicine  River,  308 


Uintah  Indian  Reservation,  118 
Umatilla    Diversion    Dam,    plan 

and  construction,  276 
Experiment  Station,  287 
Project,  climate  and  soil,  285 
cost  of  land  at,  281 
crops  and  markets,  285-288 
farm  units,  288 
farming  conditions,  286-288 
opening  of,  280 
water     distribution    system, 

278-280 

west  extension,  282 
River,  275 
Uncompahgre  Project,  area  and 

physical  features,  126 
cost  of  water  in,  135 
farm  units,  136 
South  Canal,  133 
Valley,  old  private  canal  sys- 
tems, 130,  131 
climatic     and     agricultural 

features,  129 
Unit,  definition,  321 
Upper  Klamath  Lake,  295,  296, 

298 

River,  290,  296 
Utah  Canal,  Ariz.,  67 

Lake,  320 
Ute  Indian  Reservation,  118 

Vado,  Tex.,  259 

Vandalia    Diversion    Dam,    site 

and  plan,  183,  184 
Mont.,  181 
Verde  River,  annual  run-off,  71 

Wadsworth,  Calif.,  224 

Walcott,  Charles  D.,  first  Di- 
rector of  the  Reclama- 
tion Service,  32,  148 

Walters,  T.  P.,  172 

Warren,   Senator  Francis  E.,   17 

Wastage  of  water,  44 

Water    cost    at    Lower    Yellow- 
stone Project,  199 
Salt  River  Project,  83 
Users'    Associations,    functions 
of,   56-58 


Weather  Bureau  aids  the  Serv- 
ice, 60 

Weed,  Calif.,  301 
Weiss,   Andrew,   manager   North 

Platte  Project,  216 
Wenatchee,  Wash.,  331 
Wendendale,  Ariz.,  97 
Whalen,  Wyo.,  206 
Whistler,      John      T.,      manager 
Truckee-Carson  Project, 
233 
Whitewood,  S.  D.,  318 

Creek,  S.  D.,  313 
Wickenburg,  Ariz.,  66 
Wide  Hollow,  Wash.,  346 
Wilder,  Idaho,  144 
Williams,  Chas.  P.,  manager  Sun 

River  Project,  194 
Williamson  River,  291 
Williston,  N.  D.,  269 

Project,    crops    and    markets, 

268,  269,  274 
irrigation  costs,  270 
location    and    physical    fea- 
tures, 263-266 
plan  of,  268 
Willow  Creek,  190,  291,  295,  296, 

307 
Willwood  Canal,  Wyo ,  360 

Division,      Shoshone      Project, 

360 

Wilson's  Bridge  Dam,  299 
Wingfield,  George,  231 
Wiota  Station,  Mont.,  385 
Wisner,  G.  Y.,  89 
Wolf  Creek,  Mont.,  385 
Wood  River,  291 
Worden,  Mont.,  172 
Wormser  Canal,  Arizona,  67 

Yakima  Basin,  history  and  phys- 
ical features,  335-337 
private    irrigation    systems, 

339,  340 

Indian  Reservation,  350 
Project,  climate  and  soil,  335- 

338 

crops  and    markets,  343-349 
irrigation  costs,  349 
irrigation  plan,  337 
land  costs,  349 
location,  334,  335 
railroads  of,  338 
Sunnyside  unit,  348 


INDEX 


411 


Yakima  Project,  continued 

Tieton  unit,  346-348 
River,  335 

Yellowstone  River,  161,  195-198 
drainage  area,  164 
run-off  of,  166 

Valley,    climate    and    agricul- 
tural features,  164 
Yuma,    Ariz.,    geographical    and 

industrial  facts,  97 
settlement  of,  91 
Indian  Reservation,  100 
Mesa,  100 


Yuma  Mesa,  100 

Project,  engineering  board,  89 
farm  units  of,  100 
irrigable  area, 
location  of,  and  preliminary 

work,  88-90 
railroads  built,  99 
Valley,   climatic    and    agricul- 
tural features,  93-96 
cost  of  land  in,  101 


Zillah,  Wash.,  349 


,( 


